
As these electrons travel down this chain, protons are pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membrane. This forms a gradient across the membrane, which in chemistry and physics has what’s called “potential energy” since substances at a high concentration will be driven to move towards lower concentration.
And sure enough, the mitochondria harness this potential energy—as the proton moves back across the membrane to lower concentration, it passes through a little rotating motor called “ATP synthase” which uses the energy of the proton moving across the membrane to power the process of producing ATP (cellular energy).
Energy associated with the transfer of electrons down the electron transport chain is used to pump protons from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical proton gradient (ΔpH) across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This proton gradient is largely but not exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial membrane potential. It allows ATP synthase to use the flow of H+ through the enzyme back into the matrix to generate ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate.
Chemiosmosis - the movement of hydrogen ions down their electrochemical gradient through special channels - drives the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Oxygen must be present in the matrix to oxidize the last component of the electron transfer system.
When oxygen is combined with available H+ ions in the matrix, water is formed. This allows additional electrons to enter the electron transfer chain and release the energy needed to pump more hydrogen ions into the intermembrane space.
ATP is produced when the high concentration of H+ ions diffuses through the channel of the ATP synthase complex that is embedded in the inner membran of mitochondria.
**ADD 38 MPG and 4 MPG == Maybe Conclude with this to tie it all together??
When they are not functioning properly we have disease. And as we'll see in a lot of detail in this chapter and the next two, the key to a properly running engine is what is called aerobic respiration (with oxygen). When the engine is NOT running properly the body reverts to its inefficient "back-up power" which is anaerobic respiration (without oxygen) or sometimes called glycolysis or the lactic acid cycle or fermentation cycle. Because cytochrome C oxidase is the main enzyme that anchors oxygen and reduces it to water and carbon dioxide, and because red and near infrared are integral in this process, THIS ability of red light therapy to boost electron flow and stimulate aerobic respiration which yields up to 38 molecules of ATP, is the KEY to why it helps the body to heal itself from A-Z. I keep repeating this in different ways from different angles, because it is so "enlightening" to understanding why we are either healthy or sick.
And sure enough, the mitochondria harness this potential energy—as the proton moves back across the membrane to lower concentration, it passes through a little rotating motor called “ATP synthase” which uses the energy of the proton moving across the membrane to power the process of producing ATP (cellular energy).
Energy associated with the transfer of electrons down the electron transport chain is used to pump protons from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical proton gradient (ΔpH) across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This proton gradient is largely but not exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial membrane potential. It allows ATP synthase to use the flow of H+ through the enzyme back into the matrix to generate ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate.
Chemiosmosis - the movement of hydrogen ions down their electrochemical gradient through special channels - drives the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Oxygen must be present in the matrix to oxidize the last component of the electron transfer system.
When oxygen is combined with available H+ ions in the matrix, water is formed. This allows additional electrons to enter the electron transfer chain and release the energy needed to pump more hydrogen ions into the intermembrane space.
ATP is produced when the high concentration of H+ ions diffuses through the channel of the ATP synthase complex that is embedded in the inner membran of mitochondria.
**ADD 38 MPG and 4 MPG == Maybe Conclude with this to tie it all together??
When they are not functioning properly we have disease. And as we'll see in a lot of detail in this chapter and the next two, the key to a properly running engine is what is called aerobic respiration (with oxygen). When the engine is NOT running properly the body reverts to its inefficient "back-up power" which is anaerobic respiration (without oxygen) or sometimes called glycolysis or the lactic acid cycle or fermentation cycle. Because cytochrome C oxidase is the main enzyme that anchors oxygen and reduces it to water and carbon dioxide, and because red and near infrared are integral in this process, THIS ability of red light therapy to boost electron flow and stimulate aerobic respiration which yields up to 38 molecules of ATP, is the KEY to why it helps the body to heal itself from A-Z. I keep repeating this in different ways from different angles, because it is so "enlightening" to understanding why we are either healthy or sick.

In the process you additionally use up oxygen AND you cannot help but make reactive oxygen species. Fortunately the body has a way of mopping this up and making sure these things go away is through melatonin.
Next Chapter Segue
The problem is when this stuff starts to go and these wheels start to turn, and these electrons start to be passed down the chain, it's not perfect and sometimes you can have these electrons getting caught up with other oxygen molecules, and something called reactive oxygen species being made. The most common one here being superoxide, but there are other common ones as well such as hydrogen peroxide and also hydroxy radicals. All of these are very dangerous substrates that can interact with the proteins around them and can cause severe damage. And the more damage they cause, the more likely there is to be more reactive oxygen species made. So it is very important that if and when these reactive oxygen species are made as a result of metabolism and this electron transport chain, that they mopped up or quenched.

In fact, the earth absorbs sunlight, which is more on the visible spectrum, from the sun but it re- radiates infrared mainly. That’s why these infrared cameras work, because infrared radiation is everywhere. We are literally surrounded on planet earth, everywhere you go, by a limitless supply of these photons – these infrared photons – which charge up the water in our body and cells.
They’ve done studies with this. You can take this EZ water and it’s actually a battery. When you have charged separation, you have a battery that stores energy. You can put little terminal [in place] and you can light up a light bulb with water!
This EZ water, like I said, fills your cells. It actually powers you up like a battery. Along with ATP and TMP, which I talk about in my book, this EZ water is potential energy that the cells will use for all their functions that they need to do, like for example protein folding. Dr. Pollack has some good mechanisms for how protein folding happens through EZ water mechanisms.
Look at the mitochondria which is the powerhouse of the cell. All the membranes in the mitochondria are surrounded with EZ water.
Dr. Ling, who is one of the pioneers in showing a new mechanism for ATP production, showed that EZ water is a big part of producing ATP in the body.
They’ve done studies with this. You can take this EZ water and it’s actually a battery. When you have charged separation, you have a battery that stores energy. You can put little terminal [in place] and you can light up a light bulb with water!
This EZ water, like I said, fills your cells. It actually powers you up like a battery. Along with ATP and TMP, which I talk about in my book, this EZ water is potential energy that the cells will use for all their functions that they need to do, like for example protein folding. Dr. Pollack has some good mechanisms for how protein folding happens through EZ water mechanisms.
Look at the mitochondria which is the powerhouse of the cell. All the membranes in the mitochondria are surrounded with EZ water.
Dr. Ling, who is one of the pioneers in showing a new mechanism for ATP production, showed that EZ water is a big part of producing ATP in the body.

Water, the second most important chromophore in RLT
It turns out there is not just one predominate chromophore at play in RLT. There are TWO main chromophores. More and more research is showing that water is secondarily a very significant chromophore for wavelengths above 905nm, mainly from 905-1070nm, which now have dozens of peer reviewed studies to validate the mechanisms and efficacy.
The reason light can change the properties of water like viscosity is that it is actually a chromophore or photoacceptor and absorbs, catches or receives energy from wavelengths greater than 905nm in the near infrared range. So water can act as a little photocell or antenna like CCO. In fact, it is clear that water must be by far the most important chromophore in these near infrared wavelengths, which I referred to as deep near infrared in chapter 3 to distinguish them from 760-905nm which interacts mainly with CCO.
There is actually another form of water that is different from the common bulk water we are used to, which has been called “the fourth phase of water” by Gerald Pollack.[6] The idea is that water molecules located next to a submerged hydrophobic surface self-organize into a different form that has variously been called an “exclusion zone,” “nanostructured,” or “quasi-crystalline.” This exclusion zone (EZ) water can absorb light lead to many changes in its physical properties, including pH, polarity, and viscosity. Dr Pollack has shown with much good research that near infrared light can change the properties of water, most importantly for red light therapy being its viscosity. The other main property being polarity and charge separation (more on the mechanism in the next chapter).
Researchers have found that when water that is next to surfaces that are biochemically similar to structures in our cells, is exposed to red/NIR light, it literally changes the viscosity of water. The water literally changes in “thickness” and “wetness.” In the next chapter we will take a closer look at how this change in viscosity due to near infrared light and how this increases ATP and energy production in the mitochondria.
6. Pollack GH. The Fourth Phase of Water: Beyond Solid, Liquid, and Vapor. Seattle, WA: Ebner & Sons Publishers, 2013.
It turns out there is not just one predominate chromophore at play in RLT. There are TWO main chromophores. More and more research is showing that water is secondarily a very significant chromophore for wavelengths above 905nm, mainly from 905-1070nm, which now have dozens of peer reviewed studies to validate the mechanisms and efficacy.
The reason light can change the properties of water like viscosity is that it is actually a chromophore or photoacceptor and absorbs, catches or receives energy from wavelengths greater than 905nm in the near infrared range. So water can act as a little photocell or antenna like CCO. In fact, it is clear that water must be by far the most important chromophore in these near infrared wavelengths, which I referred to as deep near infrared in chapter 3 to distinguish them from 760-905nm which interacts mainly with CCO.
There is actually another form of water that is different from the common bulk water we are used to, which has been called “the fourth phase of water” by Gerald Pollack.[6] The idea is that water molecules located next to a submerged hydrophobic surface self-organize into a different form that has variously been called an “exclusion zone,” “nanostructured,” or “quasi-crystalline.” This exclusion zone (EZ) water can absorb light lead to many changes in its physical properties, including pH, polarity, and viscosity. Dr Pollack has shown with much good research that near infrared light can change the properties of water, most importantly for red light therapy being its viscosity. The other main property being polarity and charge separation (more on the mechanism in the next chapter).
Researchers have found that when water that is next to surfaces that are biochemically similar to structures in our cells, is exposed to red/NIR light, it literally changes the viscosity of water. The water literally changes in “thickness” and “wetness.” In the next chapter we will take a closer look at how this change in viscosity due to near infrared light and how this increases ATP and energy production in the mitochondria.
6. Pollack GH. The Fourth Phase of Water: Beyond Solid, Liquid, and Vapor. Seattle, WA: Ebner & Sons Publishers, 2013.

2. Light and Heat Sensitive Ion Channels Mechanisms - TRP (Transient Receptor Potential) Mechanisms
Opsins absorbs
Another class of PBM chromophores has been proposed to be transient potential receptor (TRP) ion channels.
TRP are calcium channels involved with pain, hotness, coldness, light. different kinds of tastes, pressure, and even vision in insects. Light-gated TRP channels are coupled to photoreceptor proteins called opsins. Opsins are transmembrane proteins that possess a retinal cofactor, which can be photoisomerized from a cis to a trans form by absorption of light.
One hypothesis to explain how TRP channels could be affected by NIR light relies on the absorption by structured water discussed earlier.
PBM creates conformational change which creates nanostructered water in the channel lowering surface tension and allowing for changes in Ca2+ to more easily flow in and out in a way that modulates (in or out). That is, water is the chromophore and by far the most abundant in the body!
8. Albert ES, Bec JM, Desmadryl G, et al. TRPV4 channels mediate the infrared laser-evoked response in sensory neurons. J Neurophysiol 2012;107:3227–3234.
Evidence 980 Modulates Calcium Gated Ion Channels via Water as Chromophore
A study by Wang et al. compared two different NIR laser wavelengths, 810 and 980 nm on adipose-derived stem cells.[9] Both wavelengths showed a biphasic dose response, but 810 nm showed the maximum response for proliferation at 3 J/cm2, whereas the optimum dose of 980 nm was 10–100 times lower at 0.03 or 0.3 J/cm2. Only 980 nm (but not 810 nm) increased cytosolic calcium, whereas decreasing mitochondrial calcium. The effects of 980 nm could be blocked by the addition of TRP inhibitors (capsazepine for TRPV1 and SKF96365 for TRPC channels), whereas these had no effect on the stimulation by 810 nm. To test the hypothesis that the chromophore for 980 nm light was intracellular water, which would lead to a microscopic temperature increase upon laser irradiation, we added cold medium (4°C) during the light exposure, and also preincubated the cells at 42°C, both of which abrogated the effect of 980 nm but not 810 nm. These data suggest that 980 nm affects heat-gated calcium ion channels, whereas 810 nm largely affects mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase.
9. Wang Y, Huang YY, Wang Y, Lyu P, Hamblin MR. Photobiomodulation of human adipose-derived stem cells using 810 nm and 980 nm lasers operates via different mechanisms of action. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2017;1861:441–449.
Opsins absorbs
Another class of PBM chromophores has been proposed to be transient potential receptor (TRP) ion channels.
TRP are calcium channels involved with pain, hotness, coldness, light. different kinds of tastes, pressure, and even vision in insects. Light-gated TRP channels are coupled to photoreceptor proteins called opsins. Opsins are transmembrane proteins that possess a retinal cofactor, which can be photoisomerized from a cis to a trans form by absorption of light.
One hypothesis to explain how TRP channels could be affected by NIR light relies on the absorption by structured water discussed earlier.
PBM creates conformational change which creates nanostructered water in the channel lowering surface tension and allowing for changes in Ca2+ to more easily flow in and out in a way that modulates (in or out). That is, water is the chromophore and by far the most abundant in the body!
8. Albert ES, Bec JM, Desmadryl G, et al. TRPV4 channels mediate the infrared laser-evoked response in sensory neurons. J Neurophysiol 2012;107:3227–3234.
Evidence 980 Modulates Calcium Gated Ion Channels via Water as Chromophore
A study by Wang et al. compared two different NIR laser wavelengths, 810 and 980 nm on adipose-derived stem cells.[9] Both wavelengths showed a biphasic dose response, but 810 nm showed the maximum response for proliferation at 3 J/cm2, whereas the optimum dose of 980 nm was 10–100 times lower at 0.03 or 0.3 J/cm2. Only 980 nm (but not 810 nm) increased cytosolic calcium, whereas decreasing mitochondrial calcium. The effects of 980 nm could be blocked by the addition of TRP inhibitors (capsazepine for TRPV1 and SKF96365 for TRPC channels), whereas these had no effect on the stimulation by 810 nm. To test the hypothesis that the chromophore for 980 nm light was intracellular water, which would lead to a microscopic temperature increase upon laser irradiation, we added cold medium (4°C) during the light exposure, and also preincubated the cells at 42°C, both of which abrogated the effect of 980 nm but not 810 nm. These data suggest that 980 nm affects heat-gated calcium ion channels, whereas 810 nm largely affects mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase.
9. Wang Y, Huang YY, Wang Y, Lyu P, Hamblin MR. Photobiomodulation of human adipose-derived stem cells using 810 nm and 980 nm lasers operates via different mechanisms of action. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2017;1861:441–449.
How then can we explain that PBM can have powerful effects on the brain at wavelengths as long as 1064 nm (Wang et al., 2017; Blanco et al., 2017).? One answer may lie in the concept of nanostructured water or interfacial water elaborated by Gerald Pollack (Trevors and Pollack, 2012; Pollack and Reitz, 2001; Pollack, 2003). This exclusion zone (EZ) water absorbs optical radiation which produces distinct physical changes in parameters such as viscosity and pH.
Since the EZ water layers occur on intracellular membranes, it is reasonable to suggest that ion channels embedded within these membranes (for instance in mitochondria), may be triggered by these physical changes. Since bulk water does not absorb IR light to the same degree as EZ water, this would explain why biochemical changes can take place within the cells, while there is no detectable bulk heating of the tissue, as would have been expected if the IR energy was absorbed by all water molecules.
Blanco, N.J., Maddox, W.T., Gonzalez-Lima, F., 2017. Improving executive function using transcranial infrared laser stimulation. J. Neuropsychol. 11
(1), 1425.
Pollack, G.H., 2003. The role of aqueous interfaces in the cell. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 103 (2), 173196.
Pollack, G.H., Reitz, F.B., 2001. Phase transitions and molecular motion in the cell. Cell Mol. Biol. (Noisy-le-grand). 47 (5), 885900.
Trevors, J.T., Pollack, G.H., 2012. Origin of microbial life hypothesis: a gel cytoplasm lacking a bilayer membrane, with infrared radiation producing
exclusion zone (EZ) water, hydrogen as an energy source and thermosynthesis for bioenergetics. Biochimie 94 (1), 258262.
Wang, X., Tian, F., Reddy, D.D., Nalawade, S.S., Barrett, D.W., Gonzalez-Lima, F., et al., 2017. Up-regulation of cerebral cytochrome-c-oxidase and hemodynamics by transcranial infrared laser stimulation: a broadband near-infrared spectroscopy study. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 37 (12), 37893802.
Since the EZ water layers occur on intracellular membranes, it is reasonable to suggest that ion channels embedded within these membranes (for instance in mitochondria), may be triggered by these physical changes. Since bulk water does not absorb IR light to the same degree as EZ water, this would explain why biochemical changes can take place within the cells, while there is no detectable bulk heating of the tissue, as would have been expected if the IR energy was absorbed by all water molecules.
Blanco, N.J., Maddox, W.T., Gonzalez-Lima, F., 2017. Improving executive function using transcranial infrared laser stimulation. J. Neuropsychol. 11
(1), 1425.
Pollack, G.H., 2003. The role of aqueous interfaces in the cell. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 103 (2), 173196.
Pollack, G.H., Reitz, F.B., 2001. Phase transitions and molecular motion in the cell. Cell Mol. Biol. (Noisy-le-grand). 47 (5), 885900.
Trevors, J.T., Pollack, G.H., 2012. Origin of microbial life hypothesis: a gel cytoplasm lacking a bilayer membrane, with infrared radiation producing
exclusion zone (EZ) water, hydrogen as an energy source and thermosynthesis for bioenergetics. Biochimie 94 (1), 258262.
Wang, X., Tian, F., Reddy, D.D., Nalawade, S.S., Barrett, D.W., Gonzalez-Lima, F., et al., 2017. Up-regulation of cerebral cytochrome-c-oxidase and hemodynamics by transcranial infrared laser stimulation: a broadband near-infrared spectroscopy study. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 37 (12), 37893802.

3. PBM may decrease viscosity of interfacial water allowing faster rotation of ATP synthase.
ATP-ase Mechanisms
**980 and ATPase**
Sommer has suggested an interesting hypothesis that combines the idea of nanostructured water acting as a chromophore, with the well-established increased production of ATP observed in mitochondria.[7] ATP synthase is a membrane protein complex composed of two interconnected rotary molecular motors, each powered by a different fuel. The F0 motor is powered by the flow of protons across the mitochondrial membrane generated by the electron transport chain feeding into CCO activity. The F0 rotor is connected to the second F1 rotor, which produces ATP from ADP and phosphate. The hypothesis is that a reduction in the viscosity of EZ water surrounding the mitochondrial membrane will allow these rotors to turn faster and, therefore, create more ATP.
7. Sommer AP, Haddad MK, Fecht H-J. Light effect on water viscosity: implication for ATP biosynthesis. Sci Rep 2015;5:12029.
- 900-1100 especially 980 and 1064 in studies!
One mechanism is this changes (lowers) the viscosity of water which can change the speed of the ATP synthase molecular rotor. Andrew Sommer.
There is one more main research-proven mechanism that also involves light being absorbed by water (again water is a chromophore). The mechanism involves ATP synthase which is unit 5 in the mitochondria which is a molecular rotor that spins in circles and if you can reduce the viscosity of water by absorption of near infrared light, you can speed up the rotation of this rotor which helps to produce more ATP.
So all these three mechanisms affect the mitochondria which is the key place for all PBM mechanisms (stain studies only show mitochondria absorbs light proving this visually, The rest of the cell with the exception of water, is transparent to light (it just passes on through).
Amaroli A, Pasquale C, Zekiy A, Utyuzh A, Benedicenti S, Signore A, Ravera S. Photobiomodulation and Oxidative Stress: 980 nm Diode Laser Light Regulates Mitochondrial Activity and Reactive Oxygen Species Production. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2021 Mar
ATP-ase Mechanisms
**980 and ATPase**
Sommer has suggested an interesting hypothesis that combines the idea of nanostructured water acting as a chromophore, with the well-established increased production of ATP observed in mitochondria.[7] ATP synthase is a membrane protein complex composed of two interconnected rotary molecular motors, each powered by a different fuel. The F0 motor is powered by the flow of protons across the mitochondrial membrane generated by the electron transport chain feeding into CCO activity. The F0 rotor is connected to the second F1 rotor, which produces ATP from ADP and phosphate. The hypothesis is that a reduction in the viscosity of EZ water surrounding the mitochondrial membrane will allow these rotors to turn faster and, therefore, create more ATP.
7. Sommer AP, Haddad MK, Fecht H-J. Light effect on water viscosity: implication for ATP biosynthesis. Sci Rep 2015;5:12029.
- 900-1100 especially 980 and 1064 in studies!
One mechanism is this changes (lowers) the viscosity of water which can change the speed of the ATP synthase molecular rotor. Andrew Sommer.
There is one more main research-proven mechanism that also involves light being absorbed by water (again water is a chromophore). The mechanism involves ATP synthase which is unit 5 in the mitochondria which is a molecular rotor that spins in circles and if you can reduce the viscosity of water by absorption of near infrared light, you can speed up the rotation of this rotor which helps to produce more ATP.
So all these three mechanisms affect the mitochondria which is the key place for all PBM mechanisms (stain studies only show mitochondria absorbs light proving this visually, The rest of the cell with the exception of water, is transparent to light (it just passes on through).
Amaroli A, Pasquale C, Zekiy A, Utyuzh A, Benedicenti S, Signore A, Ravera S. Photobiomodulation and Oxidative Stress: 980 nm Diode Laser Light Regulates Mitochondrial Activity and Reactive Oxygen Species Production. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2021 Mar

Coherent Excitations - Holistic and Systemic Mechanisms
Free Mitochondria
In a solid state laser, specific atoms are embedded in a block of solid-state material (Fig. 8.2), at the ends of which are reflecting mirrors. Energy can be supplied in the form of light, electric current, or even heat, in order to excite the atoms. The atoms re-emit light tracks and those running in the axial direction will be reflected back and forth several times before going out. At low levels of energy pumping, the laser operates as an ordinary lamp, and the atoms emit randomly. As the pumping power is increased, a level is reached, called the laser threshold, when all the atoms will oscillate in phase and emit together, sending out a giant wave train that is 10^6 times as long as that emitted by individual atoms.
Solid-state physicist Herbert Fröhlich points out that, as living organisms are made up predominantly of dielectric, or dipolar molecules packed rather densely together, they may indeed represent special solid state systems where electric forces constantly interact. Under those conditions, metabolic pumping may result in a build-up to collective modes of vibration, rather like the laser action just described.
Coherent excitations can account for many of the most characteristic properties of living organisms: long range order and coordination; rapid and efficient energy transfer, as well as extreme sensitivity to specific signals.
I have said that coherent excitations can give rise to long range order in the living system, as well as rapid and efficient energy transfer. We can now see in a more concrete way how that may be achieved. Fröhlich39 proposes that biological membranes, by virtue of their dipolar structure and the existence of large transmembrane potentials, are particularly prone to such collective vibrational modes
The living system itself must also be organized by intrinsic electrodynamical fields, capable of receiving, amplifying, and possibly transmitting electromagnetic information in a wide range of frequencies — rather like an extraordinarily efficient and sensitive, and extremely broadband radio receiver and transmitter
The fully coherent state (to order m, where m approaches ∞) is an idealization which is almost never realized. That is because the system, despite its dynamic, energetic closure, is constantly interacting with its environment, which would tend to decohere the system, or take it away from the fully factorizable pure state. Nevertheless, it will tend to return to the coherent pure state, which is an attractor. In quantum optics and quantum electrodynamic theory, the coherent state is indeed asymptotically stable.14 Similarly, Duffield15 has provided a proof that the “Fröhlich state” of coherent excitation also exhibits global asymptotic stability. In analogy with the pumped laser, one might even consider the stronger hypothesis that phase correlations between different modes in the living system are actively determined and maintained
An intuitive way to appreciate how coherence affects the rapidity and efficiency of energy transfer is to think of a boat race, where it is paramount for the oarsmen and oarswomen to row in phase; and similarly, in a line of construction workers moving a load, as the one passes the load, the next has to be in readiness to receive it, and so a certain phase relationship in their side-to-side movement has to be maintained. If the rhythm (phase relationship) is broken in either case, much of the energy would be lost and the work would be slower and less efficient.
Fröhlich, H. “Long Range Coherence and Energy Storage in Biological Systems.” Int. J. Quantum Chem. 2 (1968): 641–49.
Fröhlich, H. “The Biological Effects of Microwaves and Related Questions.” Adv. Electronics and Electron. Phys. 53 (1980): 85–152.
Fröhlich, F. and Hyland, G. “Fröhlich Coherence at the Mind-brain Interface.” In Scale in Conscious Experience: Is the Brain Too Important
Free Mitochondria
In a solid state laser, specific atoms are embedded in a block of solid-state material (Fig. 8.2), at the ends of which are reflecting mirrors. Energy can be supplied in the form of light, electric current, or even heat, in order to excite the atoms. The atoms re-emit light tracks and those running in the axial direction will be reflected back and forth several times before going out. At low levels of energy pumping, the laser operates as an ordinary lamp, and the atoms emit randomly. As the pumping power is increased, a level is reached, called the laser threshold, when all the atoms will oscillate in phase and emit together, sending out a giant wave train that is 10^6 times as long as that emitted by individual atoms.
Solid-state physicist Herbert Fröhlich points out that, as living organisms are made up predominantly of dielectric, or dipolar molecules packed rather densely together, they may indeed represent special solid state systems where electric forces constantly interact. Under those conditions, metabolic pumping may result in a build-up to collective modes of vibration, rather like the laser action just described.
Coherent excitations can account for many of the most characteristic properties of living organisms: long range order and coordination; rapid and efficient energy transfer, as well as extreme sensitivity to specific signals.
I have said that coherent excitations can give rise to long range order in the living system, as well as rapid and efficient energy transfer. We can now see in a more concrete way how that may be achieved. Fröhlich39 proposes that biological membranes, by virtue of their dipolar structure and the existence of large transmembrane potentials, are particularly prone to such collective vibrational modes
The living system itself must also be organized by intrinsic electrodynamical fields, capable of receiving, amplifying, and possibly transmitting electromagnetic information in a wide range of frequencies — rather like an extraordinarily efficient and sensitive, and extremely broadband radio receiver and transmitter
The fully coherent state (to order m, where m approaches ∞) is an idealization which is almost never realized. That is because the system, despite its dynamic, energetic closure, is constantly interacting with its environment, which would tend to decohere the system, or take it away from the fully factorizable pure state. Nevertheless, it will tend to return to the coherent pure state, which is an attractor. In quantum optics and quantum electrodynamic theory, the coherent state is indeed asymptotically stable.14 Similarly, Duffield15 has provided a proof that the “Fröhlich state” of coherent excitation also exhibits global asymptotic stability. In analogy with the pumped laser, one might even consider the stronger hypothesis that phase correlations between different modes in the living system are actively determined and maintained
An intuitive way to appreciate how coherence affects the rapidity and efficiency of energy transfer is to think of a boat race, where it is paramount for the oarsmen and oarswomen to row in phase; and similarly, in a line of construction workers moving a load, as the one passes the load, the next has to be in readiness to receive it, and so a certain phase relationship in their side-to-side movement has to be maintained. If the rhythm (phase relationship) is broken in either case, much of the energy would be lost and the work would be slower and less efficient.
Fröhlich, H. “Long Range Coherence and Energy Storage in Biological Systems.” Int. J. Quantum Chem. 2 (1968): 641–49.
Fröhlich, H. “The Biological Effects of Microwaves and Related Questions.” Adv. Electronics and Electron. Phys. 53 (1980): 85–152.
Fröhlich, F. and Hyland, G. “Fröhlich Coherence at the Mind-brain Interface.” In Scale in Conscious Experience: Is the Brain Too Important
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