ATP - The Energy of Life
“The hooking and unhooking that last phosphate [on ATP] is what keeps the whole world operating.”
- James Trefil
- James Trefil

Think of the most energetic, full of life people you know. What do we say about them? “Boy, he has a lot of energy!" Or "WOW, she is such a bundle of energy!" We’re attracted to energetic people because they’re active, healthy, positive, enthusiastic, love the company of others, are action-oriented and are very likely to say "Yes!" or "Let's go!" to opportunities for fun, excitement and personal challenge.
All of these infectious traits revolve around the energy that is always available to our 37 trillion cells. That’s an unfathomable number – and a lot of potential activity animating our lives! [1], Beyond that, our health depends in large part on the quality and energy of the health of our cells – all 37 trillion of them!
All of these infectious traits revolve around the energy that is always available to our 37 trillion cells. That’s an unfathomable number – and a lot of potential activity animating our lives! [1], Beyond that, our health depends in large part on the quality and energy of the health of our cells – all 37 trillion of them!

To explain why light is so essential to the human body, we have dig down to the cellular level. In every cell of our body, we have mitochondria, which collectively are like the engine in a car that produces the power that gets us on the road. For us, that comes from the “fuel” we call ATP.
This process, aka our overall metabolism, involves the chemical oxidation of glucose into carbon dioxide and water within the mitochondria – a fascinating, intricate process we call aerobic respiration. This happens naturally and if all is well, and our metabolism is efficient, we have good health. If there is a breakdown in metabolism, we’ll be dealing with disease. Nearly every disease state known to man can be linked to impaired mitochondrial function which can result from impairment to aerobic respiration; a shrinking of the size of mitochondria; and a diminishing number of mitochondria as we get older or sick.
NOTE: The mitochondria are thought to originate from primitive bacteria that eons ago merged with the developing mammalian cells via symbiogenesis. There would simply be no complex life without this amazing evolutionary partnership between animals cells and mitochondria.
This process, aka our overall metabolism, involves the chemical oxidation of glucose into carbon dioxide and water within the mitochondria – a fascinating, intricate process we call aerobic respiration. This happens naturally and if all is well, and our metabolism is efficient, we have good health. If there is a breakdown in metabolism, we’ll be dealing with disease. Nearly every disease state known to man can be linked to impaired mitochondrial function which can result from impairment to aerobic respiration; a shrinking of the size of mitochondria; and a diminishing number of mitochondria as we get older or sick.
NOTE: The mitochondria are thought to originate from primitive bacteria that eons ago merged with the developing mammalian cells via symbiogenesis. There would simply be no complex life without this amazing evolutionary partnership between animals cells and mitochondria.
The reason the mitochondria must produce a large amount of ATP every second is that ATP, for all of the incredible things it can do, has a limitation: it cannot be stored. This function is so crucial that mitochondria can occupy as much as 25% of our cell volume! Those 37 trillion cells we’re made up of EACH contain on average anywhere from 1000 to 2500 mitochondria [2]. This means we may have upwards of 100 quadrillion mitochondria or more in our bodies!
The fact that our brains use 70% of the body's ATP helps explain the powerful correlation between mitochondrial dysfunction and neurodegeneration. There’s a lot of research popping up on this topic. This is logical because our brain cells have by far the highest concentration of mitochondria. According to a June 2021 Scientific America article by Diana Kwon, each neuron can have up to two million mitochondria within upwards of 86 billion brain cells. [3]. Having so many mitochondria in our brain cells explains why red light therapy is so effective in treating various brain disorders, including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease!
In nature, only a mature ovum egg rivals this number of mitochondria found in our brain cells, which according to Arizona State University’s Dorothy Haskett is between 100,000-600,000 mitochondria. For comparison’s sake, let’s check out a few more examples: each liver cell contains between 1000-2000 mitochondria [4] and each heart muscle cell has 5000-8000 mitochondria (and there are around 2-3 billion heart cells) [5]. On the other hand, tiny sperm cells have only 50-75 mitochondria [6].
The fact that our brains use 70% of the body's ATP helps explain the powerful correlation between mitochondrial dysfunction and neurodegeneration. There’s a lot of research popping up on this topic. This is logical because our brain cells have by far the highest concentration of mitochondria. According to a June 2021 Scientific America article by Diana Kwon, each neuron can have up to two million mitochondria within upwards of 86 billion brain cells. [3]. Having so many mitochondria in our brain cells explains why red light therapy is so effective in treating various brain disorders, including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease!
In nature, only a mature ovum egg rivals this number of mitochondria found in our brain cells, which according to Arizona State University’s Dorothy Haskett is between 100,000-600,000 mitochondria. For comparison’s sake, let’s check out a few more examples: each liver cell contains between 1000-2000 mitochondria [4] and each heart muscle cell has 5000-8000 mitochondria (and there are around 2-3 billion heart cells) [5]. On the other hand, tiny sperm cells have only 50-75 mitochondria [6].
How is this relevant to red light therapy? First and foremost, since red light therapy acts on the mitochondria, and nearly all human cells have thousands of mitochondria, red light therapy has massive therapeutic potential for us! Cells containing MORE mitochondria are more responsive to red light therapy, just like a larger gathering of solar panels is more responsive to sunlight. Breaking this down, a smaller dose will produce a therapeutic effect for cells that have high numbers of mitochondria. So although it’s difficult for red light to penetrate our brains, BECAUSE there are so many mitochondria in brain cells, even a small amount of light makes a major impact!

Red light therapy helps improve cellular metabolism in the mitochondria through the transfer of energy from photons to its chromophores [7]. We can clearly demonstrate this pivotal role of mitochondria in the translation of red and near infrared photonic energy into biochemical changes. All we have to do is observe the evidence from images of stains showing that the entire cell is transparent, EXCEPT for the mitochondria, which appears to us as dark brown.
These stains conclusively show that light is absorbed mainly in the mitochondria. [8–13]. Over 50% of this light is absorbed by cytochrome c oxidase (CCO) and cellular structured water absorbs a large percentage of the rest. While there may be other chromophores involved in the other mitochondrial complexes, we will focus on these two chromophores. CCO and water are by far the two most important photo acceptors assisting in fundamental ways with ATP and energy production in the cells.
These stains conclusively show that light is absorbed mainly in the mitochondria. [8–13]. Over 50% of this light is absorbed by cytochrome c oxidase (CCO) and cellular structured water absorbs a large percentage of the rest. While there may be other chromophores involved in the other mitochondrial complexes, we will focus on these two chromophores. CCO and water are by far the two most important photo acceptors assisting in fundamental ways with ATP and energy production in the cells.

ATP - THE ENGINE OF LIFE ON EARTH
The foundation of this arena of study is the fact that all organisms on earth, from the simplest bacteria to us human beings, use ATP as their primary energy currency. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a naturally produced compound that plays a central role in the production and transfer of energy in living cells. It consists of adenosine, a five-carbon sugar called ribose and three phosphate groups. The bond between the second and third phosphate groups is a high-powered one, storing a large amount of energy that can be used to fuel various cellular processes.
Cells need ATP to do their jobs and we depend on the ability of those cells to do those jobs quickly, efficiently and without error. Whether we are walking, running, sitting, eating, breathing, sleeping, fighting an infection, thinking, loving, working, going to the bathroom, or anything and everything we think, feel and do, both consciously and unconsciously, requires ATP energy. Let’s take a moment to thankfully reflect on some of the many functions in our bodies that require copious amounts of ATP for optimal health!
The foundation of this arena of study is the fact that all organisms on earth, from the simplest bacteria to us human beings, use ATP as their primary energy currency. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a naturally produced compound that plays a central role in the production and transfer of energy in living cells. It consists of adenosine, a five-carbon sugar called ribose and three phosphate groups. The bond between the second and third phosphate groups is a high-powered one, storing a large amount of energy that can be used to fuel various cellular processes.
Cells need ATP to do their jobs and we depend on the ability of those cells to do those jobs quickly, efficiently and without error. Whether we are walking, running, sitting, eating, breathing, sleeping, fighting an infection, thinking, loving, working, going to the bathroom, or anything and everything we think, feel and do, both consciously and unconsciously, requires ATP energy. Let’s take a moment to thankfully reflect on some of the many functions in our bodies that require copious amounts of ATP for optimal health!

When the ATP converts to ADP, we say the ATP is spent. Usually, the ADP is immediately recycled in the inner membranes of the mitochondria where it is recharged and emerges again as ATP. We can think of ATP as a molecular rechargeable battery that is “recharged” in the mitochondria via a complex process that involves the Krebs Cycle, the electron transport chain and finally oxidative phosphorylation (or OXPHOS for short).
When the battery is fully charged, it's ATP. When it's run down, it's ADP. However, we don’t throw the battery away when it's run down. It charges up again. Long before we had rechargeable energizers, we were already the energizers!
When the battery is fully charged, it's ATP. When it's run down, it's ADP. However, we don’t throw the battery away when it's run down. It charges up again. Long before we had rechargeable energizers, we were already the energizers!

A Detailed Look at How the Mitochondria Generate ATP Energy
The aerobic stages (with oxygen) of cellular respiration or ATP synthesis occur within mitochondria. The two main aerobic stages are the Krebs Cycle and the electron transport chain. A detailed look at the structure of the mitochondrion (Figure shown) helps to explain its role in the last stage of respiration, the electron transport chain (which includes cytochrome c oxidase), which is where all the red light therapy benefits happen.
There are two main membranes in the mitochondria. The inner membrane folds into what are called cristae which divides the mitochondria into three parts: the intermembrane space (between outer and inner membranes), the cristae space (formed by folds of the inner membrane), and the matrix (within the inner membrane).
The aerobic stages (with oxygen) of cellular respiration or ATP synthesis occur within mitochondria. The two main aerobic stages are the Krebs Cycle and the electron transport chain. A detailed look at the structure of the mitochondrion (Figure shown) helps to explain its role in the last stage of respiration, the electron transport chain (which includes cytochrome c oxidase), which is where all the red light therapy benefits happen.
There are two main membranes in the mitochondria. The inner membrane folds into what are called cristae which divides the mitochondria into three parts: the intermembrane space (between outer and inner membranes), the cristae space (formed by folds of the inner membrane), and the matrix (within the inner membrane).
The Krebs Cycle takes place within the matrix where carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are metabolized. They enter from outside the cell through various pathways. The major byproducts of the Krebs cycle are two coenzymes, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2). Like two molecular battery packs, both molecules neatly package very powerfully reduced electrons. The mitochondria then convert these into energy, ultimately in the form of ATP. That occurs in two steps: first through the electron transport chain (ETC), and finally through oxidative phosphorylation. Along the way, two ATP molecules are recharged in the Krebs cycle.
The electron transport chain and most ATP synthesis rely on the compartments created by the inner membrane of the mitochondria. These compartments are critical for the electron transport chain to produce ATP aerobically. Red light therapy is mainly acting on these last and most vital steps so that will be focus of our attention (electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation). Note: there are many resources online if you wish to better understand the steps leading up to the electron transport chain, but for our purposes it is enough to know that the Krebs cycle (along with glycolysis) is taking the food you eat and converting it into condensed electric charge found in NADH and FADH2.
The electron transport chain and most ATP synthesis rely on the compartments created by the inner membrane of the mitochondria. These compartments are critical for the electron transport chain to produce ATP aerobically. Red light therapy is mainly acting on these last and most vital steps so that will be focus of our attention (electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation). Note: there are many resources online if you wish to better understand the steps leading up to the electron transport chain, but for our purposes it is enough to know that the Krebs cycle (along with glycolysis) is taking the food you eat and converting it into condensed electric charge found in NADH and FADH2.
Part 1 - The Electron Transport Chain
The electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of drops like a dam that generates power. As the electrons head downhill like water in hydroelectric power, the energy is tapped at four different complexes embedded in the mitochondrial membrane.
Electrons are transferred from enzyme to enzyme in this electron transport chain. Each successive protein in the transport chain can accept a lower-energy electron. As electrons travel from a high-energy to a low energy state, energy is released. This is subsequently used to pump protons across the membrane to set up an electrical gradient in the same way a battery store energy.
The final and main enzyme in this process is called cytochrome c oxidase**, which was discovered in 1926 by Dr. Otto Warburg, who received a Nobel Prize for his discovery. [15]. This porphyrin-based enzyme is critical for oxygen use by cells because it anchors or binds directly with oxygen with the porphyrin heme groups (like hemoglobin) [16]. Oxygen is the final electron acceptor in the ETC chain. Oxygen's high affinity for electrons makes it an ideal acceptor for low-energy electrons because it literally "pulls" the electrons to itself like a super-charged magnet. With these added electrons, hydrogen is added to oxygen, forming water as the final product.
Note: The other 3 complexes in the electron transport chain are important but not involved much with the mechanisms of red light therapy. These four complexes in total are all embedded in the mitochondrial membrane. Complex I (NADH coenzyme Q reductase) accepts electrons from the Krebs cycle electron carrier nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), and passes them to coenzyme Q (ubiquinone), which also receives electrons from Complex II (succinate dehydrogenase). Then electrons are passed to Complex III (cytochrome bc1 complex), which passes them to cytochrome c (cyt c). Cyt c passes electrons to Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase). Three of these complexes are proton pumps the most important being cytochrome c oxidase which is where all of the magic of red light therapy happens.
The electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of drops like a dam that generates power. As the electrons head downhill like water in hydroelectric power, the energy is tapped at four different complexes embedded in the mitochondrial membrane.
Electrons are transferred from enzyme to enzyme in this electron transport chain. Each successive protein in the transport chain can accept a lower-energy electron. As electrons travel from a high-energy to a low energy state, energy is released. This is subsequently used to pump protons across the membrane to set up an electrical gradient in the same way a battery store energy.
The final and main enzyme in this process is called cytochrome c oxidase**, which was discovered in 1926 by Dr. Otto Warburg, who received a Nobel Prize for his discovery. [15]. This porphyrin-based enzyme is critical for oxygen use by cells because it anchors or binds directly with oxygen with the porphyrin heme groups (like hemoglobin) [16]. Oxygen is the final electron acceptor in the ETC chain. Oxygen's high affinity for electrons makes it an ideal acceptor for low-energy electrons because it literally "pulls" the electrons to itself like a super-charged magnet. With these added electrons, hydrogen is added to oxygen, forming water as the final product.
Note: The other 3 complexes in the electron transport chain are important but not involved much with the mechanisms of red light therapy. These four complexes in total are all embedded in the mitochondrial membrane. Complex I (NADH coenzyme Q reductase) accepts electrons from the Krebs cycle electron carrier nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), and passes them to coenzyme Q (ubiquinone), which also receives electrons from Complex II (succinate dehydrogenase). Then electrons are passed to Complex III (cytochrome bc1 complex), which passes them to cytochrome c (cyt c). Cyt c passes electrons to Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase). Three of these complexes are proton pumps the most important being cytochrome c oxidase which is where all of the magic of red light therapy happens.

This final and hyper-critical step of oxygen "docking" accounts for over HALF of all the energy in the electron transport chain! This makes cytochrome c oxidase THE most critical enzyme in the entire electron transport – and perhaps the entire body! The energy of our health and our very lives rests LARGELY on porphyrin-based cytochrome c oxidases’ ability to anchor or pin down oxygen so it can serve as the final electron acceptor. This process is greatly enhanced with wavelengths of light (red and near infrared) that stimulate or speed up the flow of electricity which ends up creating more ATP. [17,18]
There are two keys to this final step of ATP production which is called oxidative phosphorylation. The first part which we discussed is the electron transport chain which uses the electricity of passing electrons to pump protons "out" into the inter-membrane space. These creates an electrochemical gradient, that like a battery stores voltage.
There are two keys to this final step of ATP production which is called oxidative phosphorylation. The first part which we discussed is the electron transport chain which uses the electricity of passing electrons to pump protons "out" into the inter-membrane space. These creates an electrochemical gradient, that like a battery stores voltage.
Part 2 - Oxidative Phosphorylation and ATP Hydrolysis
The second key of this final step is that the mitochondrion harness this potential energy. As the protons moves back across the membrane "IN" to the lower concentration inside the matrix, they pass through a little rotating molecular motor in the inner membrane of the mitochondria called ATP synthase (an ATPase enzyme) which uses the energy of the proton moving across the membrane to power the process of producing ATP (cellular energy). ATP synthase is a very special enzyme which really looks like a miniature hydroelectric turbine that drives the production of ATP in the body. The myriad ATP-ase enzymes in your body are literally the "wheels of life" that drive the creation of ATP and the release of its energy! The other key step is ATP hydrolysis where the energy is liberated to power all the functions of the cell and ATP is transformed back to ADP.
The second key of this final step is that the mitochondrion harness this potential energy. As the protons moves back across the membrane "IN" to the lower concentration inside the matrix, they pass through a little rotating molecular motor in the inner membrane of the mitochondria called ATP synthase (an ATPase enzyme) which uses the energy of the proton moving across the membrane to power the process of producing ATP (cellular energy). ATP synthase is a very special enzyme which really looks like a miniature hydroelectric turbine that drives the production of ATP in the body. The myriad ATP-ase enzymes in your body are literally the "wheels of life" that drive the creation of ATP and the release of its energy! The other key step is ATP hydrolysis where the energy is liberated to power all the functions of the cell and ATP is transformed back to ADP.
Let’s take a moment to ponder all the different bodily functions shown in this chart below. At least biochemically, they are driven by an amazing little molecular "rechargeable battery" called ATP. Just like a Tesla car has over 7000 batteries of essentially the same type to power up all its functions, your body has trillions of tiny ATP molecules that power up our entire bodies! Now you can perhaps better appreciate the quote from James Trefil, “The hooking and unhooking that last phosphate [on ATP] is what keeps the whole world operating.”
Cellular Voltage - The Main Energy Demand of ATP
Several decades ago, Nobel Prize Laureate, Dr. Otto Warburg, said that cells maintain a voltage across their membrane called a transmembrane potential or TMP, which he said is analogous to the voltage of a battery. This voltage is powered by the sodium potassium pump which has a huge demand for ATP. Besides discovering cytochrome c oxidase, another big discovery of Warburg's was that he quantified the voltage of the cells to various disease states and health too. He found that healthy cells have a measurable voltage from 70- 100 millivolts (mV), with the heart cells having the highest (upwards to 90-100 millivolts or more).
Dr. Warburg found that due to the constant stress of modern life along with a toxic environment and the aging process, cellular voltage drops. People with chronic illnesses and chronic fatigue unilaterally had a diminished cellular voltage (30-50 millivolts). Cancer patients displayed the lowest voltage at less than 15-20 millivolts. And the cells are batteries powered by ATP so with low cell voltage, it's hard to power all the functions in your body which equals sickness, fatigue and disease. You just cannot be healthy with a low cellular voltage and you cannot get sick if your voltage is high. This is why there is no heart cancer, because cancer cells have the highest cellular voltage of any cell in the body!
Several decades ago, Nobel Prize Laureate, Dr. Otto Warburg, said that cells maintain a voltage across their membrane called a transmembrane potential or TMP, which he said is analogous to the voltage of a battery. This voltage is powered by the sodium potassium pump which has a huge demand for ATP. Besides discovering cytochrome c oxidase, another big discovery of Warburg's was that he quantified the voltage of the cells to various disease states and health too. He found that healthy cells have a measurable voltage from 70- 100 millivolts (mV), with the heart cells having the highest (upwards to 90-100 millivolts or more).
Dr. Warburg found that due to the constant stress of modern life along with a toxic environment and the aging process, cellular voltage drops. People with chronic illnesses and chronic fatigue unilaterally had a diminished cellular voltage (30-50 millivolts). Cancer patients displayed the lowest voltage at less than 15-20 millivolts. And the cells are batteries powered by ATP so with low cell voltage, it's hard to power all the functions in your body which equals sickness, fatigue and disease. You just cannot be healthy with a low cellular voltage and you cannot get sick if your voltage is high. This is why there is no heart cancer, because cancer cells have the highest cellular voltage of any cell in the body!
Cell Voltage and the Sodium/Potassium Pump
The standard molecular biology or medical explanation is that roughly 40% of the ATP made by our cells is spent to power the sodium-potassium pump which maintains the cellular voltage of 70mV (for a healthy cell). Our cells are literally little 70 millivolt batteries, which is a tremendous amount of energy for something so small. This sodium-potassium pump is found in our cellular membranes, where it is in charge of generating a gradient of ions. It continually pumps sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell, powered by ATP. For each ATP that is broken down, it moves 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions in. As the cell is depleted of sodium, this creates an electrical gradient and a concentration gradient. And it is these gradients that - according to molecular biology - create the cellular voltage. So because ATP powers this pump, we can see the connection. When our body and cells are healthy they utilize oxidative phosphorylation to create 36 ATP per molecule of glucose. This would correspond to a high cellular voltage (think charged battery). When our bodies resort to glycolysis due to lack of oxygen or damage to the mitochondria, only 2-4 molecules of ATP are produced which would lead to a radically diminished cellular voltage since again ATP is responsible for maintaining the pumps.
The standard molecular biology or medical explanation is that roughly 40% of the ATP made by our cells is spent to power the sodium-potassium pump which maintains the cellular voltage of 70mV (for a healthy cell). Our cells are literally little 70 millivolt batteries, which is a tremendous amount of energy for something so small. This sodium-potassium pump is found in our cellular membranes, where it is in charge of generating a gradient of ions. It continually pumps sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell, powered by ATP. For each ATP that is broken down, it moves 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions in. As the cell is depleted of sodium, this creates an electrical gradient and a concentration gradient. And it is these gradients that - according to molecular biology - create the cellular voltage. So because ATP powers this pump, we can see the connection. When our body and cells are healthy they utilize oxidative phosphorylation to create 36 ATP per molecule of glucose. This would correspond to a high cellular voltage (think charged battery). When our bodies resort to glycolysis due to lack of oxygen or damage to the mitochondria, only 2-4 molecules of ATP are produced which would lead to a radically diminished cellular voltage since again ATP is responsible for maintaining the pumps.

The Warburg Effect: The Key to Understanding Sickness and Health
The mainstream medical dogma of genetic determism has misplaced the locus of disease in the nucleus of the cell and we hear all the time that diseases like heart disease or cancer are hereditary or "run in the family".
But over a century ago with the work of Dr Otto Warburg and more recently with the research of Dr Thomas Seyfried (and many others), the most important organelle to understand in the etiology of most disease is the mitochondria sometimes referred to as mitochondrial dysfunction.
The cell like any system needs energy to do work. The energy to do this work is stored in the cellular voltage and ATP. To review, the mitochondria are the energy factories of the cell that via oxidative phosphorylation fuel this process. The end result of oxidative phosphorylation is to generate ATP, which is the energy used by the cells to fuel all its processes. Oxidative phosphorylation produces 36 ATP for each molecule of glucose that enters the pathway. When the body is healthy this optimal level of ATP keeps the cellular voltage of your 37 trillion cells at 70mV to up to 90mV so you can thrive with an abundance of energy and enjoy life.
But we also have a second pathway for generating energy - glycolysis - which is essentially fermentation, and this pathway is essential to understanding why we get sick. We use this primitive pathway as "backup" when we do not have enough oxygen OR our mitochondrial machinery is damaged by oxidative stress. It is normal and healthy to use this pathway in say marathons, where even healthy people cannot get enough oxygen to their cells and hit the proverbial "wall" because of this switch to the backup glycolysis.
This glycolytic pathway is much less efficient in generating ATP than oxidative phosphorylation. In fact it produces only 2 molecules of ATP compared to 36 generated in oxidative phosphorylation. It is like getting only 2 miles per gallon versus 36! No wonder people that are sick are fatigued, their mitochondrial energy is running on proverbial fumes! When this pathway dominates, our cell voltage drops and can can drop as low as 15 to 20mV in the case of cancer and those close to death. And almost just as bad glucose doesn't fully break down into water and CO2, it produces toxic byproducts which include alcohol and lactic acid (which acidify the body and makes things worse). This is good for wine and beer production, but terrible for your cells! This lactic acid buildup happens in athletics too, but only temporarily when they overtrain. For really sick people this inefficient pathway becomes the "default" all the time.
Mitochondrial dysfunction which is essentially low cellular voltage due to the cells using glycolysis which produces too little ATP and has toxic and acidic byproducts is the MAIN reason we get sick, not genetics (though genetics does play a role just not the main factor with the leading killers cancer, heart disease and stroke). This link between glycolysis and disease is known as the Warburg Effect.
Aging and ATP Decline
Even if we are not sick, studies have shown after the age of 18, most individuals produce about 5-8% less ATP per decade. This may not sound like a lot but this means that when you reach the age of 60, you are probably down by something like 20-30%. And more recent studies have shown even a more rapid decline. Unfortunately the body's need for ATP does not decline with age, and in some cases it is even greater.
The mainstream medical dogma of genetic determism has misplaced the locus of disease in the nucleus of the cell and we hear all the time that diseases like heart disease or cancer are hereditary or "run in the family".
But over a century ago with the work of Dr Otto Warburg and more recently with the research of Dr Thomas Seyfried (and many others), the most important organelle to understand in the etiology of most disease is the mitochondria sometimes referred to as mitochondrial dysfunction.
The cell like any system needs energy to do work. The energy to do this work is stored in the cellular voltage and ATP. To review, the mitochondria are the energy factories of the cell that via oxidative phosphorylation fuel this process. The end result of oxidative phosphorylation is to generate ATP, which is the energy used by the cells to fuel all its processes. Oxidative phosphorylation produces 36 ATP for each molecule of glucose that enters the pathway. When the body is healthy this optimal level of ATP keeps the cellular voltage of your 37 trillion cells at 70mV to up to 90mV so you can thrive with an abundance of energy and enjoy life.
But we also have a second pathway for generating energy - glycolysis - which is essentially fermentation, and this pathway is essential to understanding why we get sick. We use this primitive pathway as "backup" when we do not have enough oxygen OR our mitochondrial machinery is damaged by oxidative stress. It is normal and healthy to use this pathway in say marathons, where even healthy people cannot get enough oxygen to their cells and hit the proverbial "wall" because of this switch to the backup glycolysis.
This glycolytic pathway is much less efficient in generating ATP than oxidative phosphorylation. In fact it produces only 2 molecules of ATP compared to 36 generated in oxidative phosphorylation. It is like getting only 2 miles per gallon versus 36! No wonder people that are sick are fatigued, their mitochondrial energy is running on proverbial fumes! When this pathway dominates, our cell voltage drops and can can drop as low as 15 to 20mV in the case of cancer and those close to death. And almost just as bad glucose doesn't fully break down into water and CO2, it produces toxic byproducts which include alcohol and lactic acid (which acidify the body and makes things worse). This is good for wine and beer production, but terrible for your cells! This lactic acid buildup happens in athletics too, but only temporarily when they overtrain. For really sick people this inefficient pathway becomes the "default" all the time.
Mitochondrial dysfunction which is essentially low cellular voltage due to the cells using glycolysis which produces too little ATP and has toxic and acidic byproducts is the MAIN reason we get sick, not genetics (though genetics does play a role just not the main factor with the leading killers cancer, heart disease and stroke). This link between glycolysis and disease is known as the Warburg Effect.
Aging and ATP Decline
Even if we are not sick, studies have shown after the age of 18, most individuals produce about 5-8% less ATP per decade. This may not sound like a lot but this means that when you reach the age of 60, you are probably down by something like 20-30%. And more recent studies have shown even a more rapid decline. Unfortunately the body's need for ATP does not decline with age, and in some cases it is even greater.

The Red Light Solution!
Improving Cellular Voltage and Reversing (or preventing) the Warburg Effect.
So the natural question is, "what can we do to increase ATP production?" One of the best solutions, along with other good lifestyle decisions and avoiding a toxic environment, is red light therapy. This is because red light therapy assists our body's ability to produce ATP more efficiently and effectively by stimulating CCO in at least five research-proven ways that we’ll explore next. Increasing ATP production is THE main reason red light therapy helps the body to heal itself from just about any illness we can imagine, and also to prevent and offset the decline in ATP with age. By increasing ATP we increase cell voltage, and by increasing cell voltage we have more energy and get or stay healthy.
Here is a succinct summary all the exciting benefits of red light therapy: it acts as a Whole Body Battery Recharger charging up the cell voltage of our body's 37 trillion cells, tissues and organs. This literally electrifying process takes place in the mitochondria, which act like tiny antennas or solar cells to capture red and near infrared light – and along with food, convert that into ATP energy in staggering quantities within our body's myriad cells.
Using a full body red light device for a mere 15-20 minutes can give you a deep cellular recharge that we WILL experience as increased energy flow. When you use full body red light therapy regularly, you'll feel more energy throughout the day and especially in your workouts and activities! It is incredibly noticeable! Let's now look at some peer reviewed research to corroborate that red and near infrared light therapy stimulates cytochrome c oxidase to increase ATP and cellular energy in at least 5 ways.
Improving Cellular Voltage and Reversing (or preventing) the Warburg Effect.
So the natural question is, "what can we do to increase ATP production?" One of the best solutions, along with other good lifestyle decisions and avoiding a toxic environment, is red light therapy. This is because red light therapy assists our body's ability to produce ATP more efficiently and effectively by stimulating CCO in at least five research-proven ways that we’ll explore next. Increasing ATP production is THE main reason red light therapy helps the body to heal itself from just about any illness we can imagine, and also to prevent and offset the decline in ATP with age. By increasing ATP we increase cell voltage, and by increasing cell voltage we have more energy and get or stay healthy.
Here is a succinct summary all the exciting benefits of red light therapy: it acts as a Whole Body Battery Recharger charging up the cell voltage of our body's 37 trillion cells, tissues and organs. This literally electrifying process takes place in the mitochondria, which act like tiny antennas or solar cells to capture red and near infrared light – and along with food, convert that into ATP energy in staggering quantities within our body's myriad cells.
Using a full body red light device for a mere 15-20 minutes can give you a deep cellular recharge that we WILL experience as increased energy flow. When you use full body red light therapy regularly, you'll feel more energy throughout the day and especially in your workouts and activities! It is incredibly noticeable! Let's now look at some peer reviewed research to corroborate that red and near infrared light therapy stimulates cytochrome c oxidase to increase ATP and cellular energy in at least 5 ways.

Five Ways Red Light therapy Increases Cellular Voltage and ATP Production
The most well-studied action mechanism of red light therapy (RLT) centers around cytochrome c oxidase (CCO), which is unit four of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. This enzyme helps the mitochondria bind more efficiently with oxygen to produce cellular ATP more abundantly and efficiently. Here are the five ways red light therapy increases cellular voltage and ATP production through cytochrome C oxidase:
1) Absorption of Light by CCO and excited electrons (which increases Electron Flow in the Electron Transport Chain - Push)
2) The Photodissociation of nitric oxide (NO) and the increased binding of Oxygen to CCO (which anchors Oxygen and increases electron flow - Pull)
3) Red light therapy increases CCO synthesis which is like having more solar panels on your roof.
4) Mitochondria Biogenesis - Red light therapy helps to create more mitochondria
5) Red light therapy helps to create EZ (exclusion zone) water (water as a chromophore) which assists to both increase ATP and Cellular Voltage
1) Absorption of Light By CCO
The first step is that red/near-infrared light gets absorbed by the chromophore cytochrome c oxidase, and this absorbed light transduces light energy into chemical electrical energy by exciting electrons. This occurs in the same way a solar cell captures light and excites electrons, creating electricity in solar panels. The main "antenna" for capturing and transducing this light energy are the porphyrin based heme and copper groups in cytochrome c oxidase. Remember, technology is actually using porphyrins to make solar panels!
The basis for generating electricity is that the electron in the outermost orbital of atoms and molecules — the valency electron — becomes mobile by absorbing enough energy as it corresponds to the ionizing potential. Mobile electrons constitute electric currents, which flow to the nearest neighboring molecule, or they can go further afield. The red and near infrared provide the perfect ionizing potential (the band gap of semiconductors) to "kick" or "boost" electrons to a higher or excited energy state.
These excited electrons boost or increase the flow/current in the electron transport chain by passing themselves into electronegative oxygen, the final acceptor. As these electrons are "pushed" energetically to flow downhill, the energy is harnessed to pump H+ ions out into the intermembrane space, which increases the mitochondria membrane potential. Then like a battery, this provides the energy that increases the cells’ ability to produce more ATP. There is more "gas in the tank" now, allowing the cells to do more work and carry out their functions with greater efficiency. We are happy to report that there are many studies that show red light therapy boosts ATP production directly in this way [18-24]!
The most well-studied action mechanism of red light therapy (RLT) centers around cytochrome c oxidase (CCO), which is unit four of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. This enzyme helps the mitochondria bind more efficiently with oxygen to produce cellular ATP more abundantly and efficiently. Here are the five ways red light therapy increases cellular voltage and ATP production through cytochrome C oxidase:
1) Absorption of Light by CCO and excited electrons (which increases Electron Flow in the Electron Transport Chain - Push)
2) The Photodissociation of nitric oxide (NO) and the increased binding of Oxygen to CCO (which anchors Oxygen and increases electron flow - Pull)
3) Red light therapy increases CCO synthesis which is like having more solar panels on your roof.
4) Mitochondria Biogenesis - Red light therapy helps to create more mitochondria
5) Red light therapy helps to create EZ (exclusion zone) water (water as a chromophore) which assists to both increase ATP and Cellular Voltage
1) Absorption of Light By CCO
The first step is that red/near-infrared light gets absorbed by the chromophore cytochrome c oxidase, and this absorbed light transduces light energy into chemical electrical energy by exciting electrons. This occurs in the same way a solar cell captures light and excites electrons, creating electricity in solar panels. The main "antenna" for capturing and transducing this light energy are the porphyrin based heme and copper groups in cytochrome c oxidase. Remember, technology is actually using porphyrins to make solar panels!
The basis for generating electricity is that the electron in the outermost orbital of atoms and molecules — the valency electron — becomes mobile by absorbing enough energy as it corresponds to the ionizing potential. Mobile electrons constitute electric currents, which flow to the nearest neighboring molecule, or they can go further afield. The red and near infrared provide the perfect ionizing potential (the band gap of semiconductors) to "kick" or "boost" electrons to a higher or excited energy state.
These excited electrons boost or increase the flow/current in the electron transport chain by passing themselves into electronegative oxygen, the final acceptor. As these electrons are "pushed" energetically to flow downhill, the energy is harnessed to pump H+ ions out into the intermembrane space, which increases the mitochondria membrane potential. Then like a battery, this provides the energy that increases the cells’ ability to produce more ATP. There is more "gas in the tank" now, allowing the cells to do more work and carry out their functions with greater efficiency. We are happy to report that there are many studies that show red light therapy boosts ATP production directly in this way [18-24]!
2) Photodissociation of Nitric Oxide (NO) - Increase Oxygen Consumption/Increases ATP
Making a big advance in this idea in 2006, Nick Lane proposed that cytochrome c oxidase (CCO) could be inhibited by the binding of nitric oxide (NO) in hypoxic or stressed cells - and that the inhibitory NO could be photo-dissociated from the heme or copper centers by the action of light [28].
Oxygen needs to "dock" onto CCO so it can accept electrons to create ATP (energy). This is THE most critical step in the electron transport chain because as we mentioned, it releases roughly half of the total energy needed to pump protons to create ATP. Yet due to cellular metabolism, oxidative stress, unhealthy living and the environmental toxins, NO can poach or dock on this critical juncture and inhibit respiration (making ATP with oxygen). NO inhibits the enzyme activity of the mitochondria which in turn suppresses respiration and reduces ATP, or energy, in the cells. Too much NO can even cause cell death. Red light therapy comes to the rescue by unbinding NO and kicking it out of the mitochondria and cell, which opens COO (the "dock") for an influx of oxygen. That is why we call it the photo-disassociation of NO. With this photo-dissociation of NO, the enzymatic activity and respiration return to a healthy baseline. This means the mitochondrial membrane potential increases, more oxygen is consumed and more glucose is metabolized – all of which lead to ATP and more energy that we can FEEL [25-29]!
Making a big advance in this idea in 2006, Nick Lane proposed that cytochrome c oxidase (CCO) could be inhibited by the binding of nitric oxide (NO) in hypoxic or stressed cells - and that the inhibitory NO could be photo-dissociated from the heme or copper centers by the action of light [28].
Oxygen needs to "dock" onto CCO so it can accept electrons to create ATP (energy). This is THE most critical step in the electron transport chain because as we mentioned, it releases roughly half of the total energy needed to pump protons to create ATP. Yet due to cellular metabolism, oxidative stress, unhealthy living and the environmental toxins, NO can poach or dock on this critical juncture and inhibit respiration (making ATP with oxygen). NO inhibits the enzyme activity of the mitochondria which in turn suppresses respiration and reduces ATP, or energy, in the cells. Too much NO can even cause cell death. Red light therapy comes to the rescue by unbinding NO and kicking it out of the mitochondria and cell, which opens COO (the "dock") for an influx of oxygen. That is why we call it the photo-disassociation of NO. With this photo-dissociation of NO, the enzymatic activity and respiration return to a healthy baseline. This means the mitochondrial membrane potential increases, more oxygen is consumed and more glucose is metabolized – all of which lead to ATP and more energy that we can FEEL [25-29]!
Using the solar panel example, NO binding to CCO is like a layer of dirt blocking light on a solar panel and diminishing the power it can generate. Using water and a cleaning solution can remove the dirt from the solar panel, thereby boosting and restoring is optimal power production. Similarly, shining red and near infrared light acts like a cleanser on CCO, washing away the toxic form of NO so life-giving oxygen can bind and help generate the energy needed to create ATP. We should note that not all NO is bad – in fact, it’s essential for circulation. We will look at these different forms of NO in more detail in the next chapter, but for now, let’s understand there is good and bad NO, and that the bad form is what binds to CCO due to environmental stressors.

3) Red Light Therapy Increases Cytochrome C Oxidase Synthesis
Not only does red light therapy enhance the activity of cytochrome c oxidase (CCO) to create ATP, it also helps SYNTHESIZE MORE CCO! That is like adding EXTRA solar panels on our houses to catch and harness light, giving it more power to do more things.
A study published by Wang, Tian and Soni in 2016 used a 1064 nm laser, which is within the near infrared spectrum [30]. When they applied it to the skin and measured the concentration of CCO, the red laser increased cytochrome c oxidase levels significantly. Two further studies by Wong-Riley [24] and Wilson and Chance [31] found an appreciable increase in the synthesis of cytochrome c oxidase in neurons using red and near infrared light. In fact, the increases were up to two to three times greater than that of the control group. And when there are more cytochrome c oxidase enzymes, there are more "light antennas" that can catch and harness light to create more cellular energy!
Not only does red light therapy enhance the activity of cytochrome c oxidase (CCO) to create ATP, it also helps SYNTHESIZE MORE CCO! That is like adding EXTRA solar panels on our houses to catch and harness light, giving it more power to do more things.
A study published by Wang, Tian and Soni in 2016 used a 1064 nm laser, which is within the near infrared spectrum [30]. When they applied it to the skin and measured the concentration of CCO, the red laser increased cytochrome c oxidase levels significantly. Two further studies by Wong-Riley [24] and Wilson and Chance [31] found an appreciable increase in the synthesis of cytochrome c oxidase in neurons using red and near infrared light. In fact, the increases were up to two to three times greater than that of the control group. And when there are more cytochrome c oxidase enzymes, there are more "light antennas" that can catch and harness light to create more cellular energy!
4) Mitochondrial Biogenesis
One of the most exciting (if not THE MOST) exciting mechanism of red and near infrared light therapy is that it stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis (also called mitochondriogenesis) which the creation of new mitochondria! Even better than creating more ATP and even creating more CCO "solar panels" is creating more mitochondrial "power plants".
It is known that exercise can stimulate mitochondrial biogenesis, and because red light therapy is research-proven to be an "exercise mimetic" (which means it mimics many of the cellular changes of exercise); studies have shown that RLT does in fact increase the number of mitochondria "power plants" in your cells. This has a huge positive impact on increasing your energy and metabolism! Q. Zhang showed that (810 nm, 3 J/cm2) near infrared could promote mitochondrial biogenesis [32]!
One of the most exciting (if not THE MOST) exciting mechanism of red and near infrared light therapy is that it stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis (also called mitochondriogenesis) which the creation of new mitochondria! Even better than creating more ATP and even creating more CCO "solar panels" is creating more mitochondrial "power plants".
It is known that exercise can stimulate mitochondrial biogenesis, and because red light therapy is research-proven to be an "exercise mimetic" (which means it mimics many of the cellular changes of exercise); studies have shown that RLT does in fact increase the number of mitochondria "power plants" in your cells. This has a huge positive impact on increasing your energy and metabolism! Q. Zhang showed that (810 nm, 3 J/cm2) near infrared could promote mitochondrial biogenesis [32]!
5) Red light therapy helps to create EZ water (water as a chromophore) which assists to both increase ATP and Cellular Voltage
Near infrared light over 900nm (980nm especially) helps enhance ATP synthase activity by lowering the viscosity of EZ water surrounding the mitochondrial membrane which allows protons to flow downstream more easily. This lower viscosity makes water "wetter" and more slippery and is akin "greasing the wheels" of the ATP synthase molecular rotor allowing the wheels of life to spin faster and more effortlessly which in turn creates more ATP [33-34].
Important Note: Dr Gerald Pollack in his well researched books "Cells, Gels and the Engines of Life" and "The Fourth Phase of Water" give compelling evidence that near infrared light not only lowers the viscosity of water to help ATP-ase create more ATP, but even more profound that near infrared light creates EZ water which like a battery stores energy and that EZ water is the co-main source of the cellular voltage along with ATP. Pollack cites many researchers that support his conclusions. While it is beyond the scope of this book to get into all the details, we will look at this a little more in chapter 10, and you can explore Dr Pollack's theories of EZ water with references at the end of this chapter. The big punchline is EZ water (liquid crystalline or structured water) in the cells is VERY much involved in the whole process of creating ATP and cellular voltage. While I think his views are well researched and correct, it is not established by mainstream science...yet!
Conclusion: These 5 research-proven mechanisms of red and near infrared light therapy (cytochrome c oxidase activation, photo-disassociate nitric oxide, creating more cytochrome c oxidase, mitochondria biogenesis and EZ water creation) ALL conspire to increase ATP production and cellular voltage. This locks your cells into healthy aerobic respiration which yields an abundant 38 molecules of ATP from one molecule of glucose, and this abundance of ATP energy can easily keep our 37 trillion cells powered up to an optimal (fully charged) 70-90 millivolts. These are fundamentally the main reasons why red and near infrared light therapy helps the body to heal itself of just about everything!
Near infrared light over 900nm (980nm especially) helps enhance ATP synthase activity by lowering the viscosity of EZ water surrounding the mitochondrial membrane which allows protons to flow downstream more easily. This lower viscosity makes water "wetter" and more slippery and is akin "greasing the wheels" of the ATP synthase molecular rotor allowing the wheels of life to spin faster and more effortlessly which in turn creates more ATP [33-34].
Important Note: Dr Gerald Pollack in his well researched books "Cells, Gels and the Engines of Life" and "The Fourth Phase of Water" give compelling evidence that near infrared light not only lowers the viscosity of water to help ATP-ase create more ATP, but even more profound that near infrared light creates EZ water which like a battery stores energy and that EZ water is the co-main source of the cellular voltage along with ATP. Pollack cites many researchers that support his conclusions. While it is beyond the scope of this book to get into all the details, we will look at this a little more in chapter 10, and you can explore Dr Pollack's theories of EZ water with references at the end of this chapter. The big punchline is EZ water (liquid crystalline or structured water) in the cells is VERY much involved in the whole process of creating ATP and cellular voltage. While I think his views are well researched and correct, it is not established by mainstream science...yet!
Conclusion: These 5 research-proven mechanisms of red and near infrared light therapy (cytochrome c oxidase activation, photo-disassociate nitric oxide, creating more cytochrome c oxidase, mitochondria biogenesis and EZ water creation) ALL conspire to increase ATP production and cellular voltage. This locks your cells into healthy aerobic respiration which yields an abundant 38 molecules of ATP from one molecule of glucose, and this abundance of ATP energy can easily keep our 37 trillion cells powered up to an optimal (fully charged) 70-90 millivolts. These are fundamentally the main reasons why red and near infrared light therapy helps the body to heal itself of just about everything!

Seeing the Mitochondria and ATP in a New Light!
(Beyond the Standard Model of Aerobic Respiration)
The image here shows a fluorescence micrograph of rhodamine-stained live mitochondria of a single cell. Each bright, squiggly line is a mitochondrion. The nucleus does not contain mitochondria and therefore appears as a dark circle in the middle of the cell. What I like about this image is it shows how mitchondria literally "light up" the cell. In a way, we can think of mitochondria as light engines that power up our energetic biofield and make it glow with life. When our mitochondria are functioning optimally, we literally have a healthy glow!! Let’s conclude this chapter by taking a more energetic look at the mitochondria and ATP, and try to integrate both with the idea of the human biofield.
(Beyond the Standard Model of Aerobic Respiration)
The image here shows a fluorescence micrograph of rhodamine-stained live mitochondria of a single cell. Each bright, squiggly line is a mitochondrion. The nucleus does not contain mitochondria and therefore appears as a dark circle in the middle of the cell. What I like about this image is it shows how mitchondria literally "light up" the cell. In a way, we can think of mitochondria as light engines that power up our energetic biofield and make it glow with life. When our mitochondria are functioning optimally, we literally have a healthy glow!! Let’s conclude this chapter by taking a more energetic look at the mitochondria and ATP, and try to integrate both with the idea of the human biofield.
Referring to our holistic and holographic model of the biofield and human body in chapter 3, keep in mind in our discussion about ATP and cellular voltage or energy. There is much more involved than simple molecular reactions. We are energetically and thermodynamically open systems intimately interconnected with the earth, sun and our immediate surroundings. ATP, EZ water and cellular voltage acts as a physical anchoring of energy. Recall our water fountain analogy of the human body and biofield. There is an interconnected flow of energy between our body and immediate environment in the form of food, water, air, light, and other electromagnetic energies of the earth coming in, and carbon dioxide, heat, sweat, and waste products going out. Life is very much an interconnected flow and a process of organization of the whole. Having said all that, ATP and cellular voltage (and EZ water) are certainly THE foundational source of energy in the human organism. There are also perhaps many other layers to our subtle energy dimension beyond the physical - like what the Eastern spiritual and healing traditions call prana, chi, or ki. Maybe our physics has not yet detected these subtler energies, but clearly, science and spirituality are coming together more and more especially since the advent of quantum mechanics, quantum biology and chaos theory (all of which show a deep interconnectedness and spontaneity lacking from reductionistic and deterministic classical or Newtonian physics). The old physics MUST be replaced with modern physics which is more "energy and information"-based physics in health and biology.

Finally, let's revisit the quote by Nobel prize winner Szent-Györgi:
“...life is driven by nothing else but electrons, by the energy given off by these electrons while cascading down from the high level to which they have been boosted up by photons. An electron going around is a little current. What drives life is thus a little electric current.”
You should now have a greater appreciation for this concept - and how red and near infrared light are literally the wavelengths of life. They boost the mitochondrial electrons while supercharging the electron transport enzymes, ESPECIALLY cytochrome c oxidase (and EZ water), which results in enhanced cellular metabolism and a beautiful symphony of physiological effects - leading to more energy and greater health!
References Chapter 6
[1] Eva Bianconi, Allison Piovesan, Federica Facchin, Alina Beraudi, Raffaella Casadei, Flavia Frabetti, Lorenza Vitale, Maria Chiara Pelleri, Simone Tassani, Francesco Piva, Soledad Perez-Amodio, Pierluigi Strippoli & Silvia Canaider (2013) An estimation of the number of cells in the human body, Annals of Human Biology, 40:6, 463-471
[2] Pizzorno J. Mitochondria-Fundamental to Life and Health. Integr Med (Encinitas). 2014 Apr;13(2):8-15. PMID: 26770084; PMCID: PMC4684129.
[3] Misgeld T, Schwarz TL. Mitostasis in Neurons: Maintaining Mitochondria in an Extended Cellular Architecture. Neuron. 2017 Nov 1;96(3):651-666.
[4] Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002. The Mitochondrion. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26894/
[5] Xianhua Wang (2017) Mitochondrial flashes regulate ATP homeostasis in the heart eLife 6:e23908.
[6] Ankel-Simons F, Cummins JM. Misconceptions about mitochondria and mammalian fertilization: implications for theories on human evolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996 Nov 26;93(24):13859-63.
[7] Ravera, S.; Colombo, E.; Pasquale, C.; Benedicenti, S.; Solimei, L.; Signore, A.; Amaroli, A. Mitochondrial Bioenergetic, Photobiomodulation and Trigeminal Branches Nerve Damage, What’s the Connection? A Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 4347.
[8] Amaroli, A.; Pasquale, C.; Zekiy, A.; Utyuzh, A.; Benedicenti, S.; Signore, A.; Ravera, S. Photobiomodulation and Oxidative Stress: 980 nm Diode Laser Light Regulates Mitochondrial Activity and Reactive Oxygen Species Production. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2021, 3, 6626286.
[9] Ravera, S.; Ferrando, S.; Agas, D.; De Angelis, N.; Raffetto, M.; Sabbieti, M.G.; Signore, A.; Benedicenti, S.; Amaroli, A.
1064 nm Nd:YAG laser light affects transmembrane mitochondria respiratory chain complexes. J. Biophotonics 2019, 12,
201900101.
[10] Amaroli, A.; Ravera, S.; Parker, S.; Panfoli, I.; Benedicenti, A.; Benedicenti, S. An 808-nm Diode Laser with a Flat-Top Handpiece Positively Photobiomodulates Mitochondria Activities. Photomed. Laser Surg. 2016, 34, 564–571.
[11] Passarella, S.; Karu, T. Absorption of monochromatic and narrow band radiation in the visible and near IR by both mitochondrial and non-mitochondrial photoacceptors results in photobiomodulation. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B 2014, 140, 344–358.
[12] Karu, T.I. Mitochondrial signaling in mammalian cells activated by red and near-IR radiation. Photochem. Photobiol. 2008, 84, 1091–1099.
[13] Mante˘ıfel’, V.M.; Andre˘ıchuk, T.N.; Karu, T.I. Reaktsiia mitokhondrial’nogo appparata limfotsitov na obluchenie He-Ne-lazerom ina mitogen fitohemaggliutinin [The effect of irradiation by a He-Ne laser and phytohemagglutinin on lymphocyte mitochondria]. Mol. Biol. 1991, 25, 273–280.
[14] Pizzorno J. Mitochondria-Fundamental to Life and Health. Integr Med (Encinitas). 2014 Apr;13(2):8-15
[15] Otto Warburg. Otto-Warburg-Medal. Available: http://otto-warburg- medal.org/index.php/otto-warburg-30.html [February 10, 2018].
[16] Yonetani T, Ray GS. Studies on Cytochrome Oxidase. 1965; 240(8): 3392- 3398.
[17] Li, Y., Park, JS., Deng, JH. et al. Cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV is essential for assembly and respiratory function of the enzyme complex. J Bioenerg Biomembr (2006) 38: 283.
[18] Herrmann, P.C. & Herrmann, E.C. Oxygen Metabolism and a potential role for cytochrome c oxidase in the Warburg effect. J Bioenerg Biomembr (2007) 39: 247.
[19] Karu T. Primary and secondary mechanisms of actionof visible to near-IR radiation on cells. J Photochem Photobiol B, Biol. 1999;49(1):1-17.
[20] L.F. De Freitas, M.R. Hamblin. Proposed mechanisms of photobiomodulation or low-level light therapy IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron., 22 (2016), p. 7000417
[21] Karu, T.I., 2010. Multiple roles of cytochrome c oxidase in mammalian cells under action of red and IR-A radiation. IUBMB Life 62 (8), 607610.
[22] Nunez-Alvarez, C., Del Olmo-Aguado, S., Merayo-Lloves, J., Osborne, N.N., 2017. Near infra-red light attenuates corneal endothelial cell dysfunction
in situ and in vitro. Exp. Eye Res. 161, 106115.
[23] Spitler, R., Ho, H., Norpetlian, F., Kong, X., Jiang, J., Yokomori, K., et al., 2015. Combination of low level light therapy and nitrosyl-cobinamide accelerates wound healing. J. Biomed. Opt. 20 (5), 051022.
[24] Wong-Riley, M.T., Liang, H.L., Eells, J.T., Chance, B., Henry, M.M., Buchmann, E., et al., 2005. Photobiomodulation directly benefits primary neurons functionally inactivated by toxins: role of cytochrome c oxidase. J. Biol. Chem. 280 (6), 47614771.
[25] Kilmartin JV. The Bohr effect of human hemoglobin. Trends in Bio. Sci. 1977;2(11):247-249.
[26] Tyuma I. The Bohr effect and the Haldane effect in human hemoglobin. Jpn J Physiol. 1984;34(2):205-16.
[27] Poyart CF, Bursaux E. [Current conception of the Bohr effect]. Poumon Coeur. 1975;31(4):173-7.
[28] Lane, N., 2006. Cell biology: power games. Nature 443 (7114), 901903.
[29] Moncada, S., Erusalimsky, J.D., 2002. Does nitric oxide modulate mitochondrial energy generation and apoptosis? Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 3 (3),
214220.
[30] Wang, X., Tian, F., Soni, S. et al. Interplay between up-regulation of cytochrome-c-oxidase and hemoglobin oxygenation induced by near-infrared laser. Sci Rep 6, 30540 (2016).
[31] Wilson, D.F., Chance, B., 1967. Azide inhibition of mitochondrial electron transport I. The aerobic steady state of succinate oxidation. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 131, 421430.
[32] Zhang Q, Dong T, Li P, Wu MX. Noninvasive low-level laser therapy for thrombocytopenia. Sci Transl Med. 2016
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5844808/
[33] Wikstrom, M., Krab, K., Saraste, M., 1981. Cytochrome Oxidase. A Synthesis. Academic Press, New York.
[34] Sommer AP, Haddad MK, Fecht H-J. Light effect on water viscosity: implication for ATP biosynthesis. Sci Rep 2015;5:12029.
“...life is driven by nothing else but electrons, by the energy given off by these electrons while cascading down from the high level to which they have been boosted up by photons. An electron going around is a little current. What drives life is thus a little electric current.”
You should now have a greater appreciation for this concept - and how red and near infrared light are literally the wavelengths of life. They boost the mitochondrial electrons while supercharging the electron transport enzymes, ESPECIALLY cytochrome c oxidase (and EZ water), which results in enhanced cellular metabolism and a beautiful symphony of physiological effects - leading to more energy and greater health!
References Chapter 6
[1] Eva Bianconi, Allison Piovesan, Federica Facchin, Alina Beraudi, Raffaella Casadei, Flavia Frabetti, Lorenza Vitale, Maria Chiara Pelleri, Simone Tassani, Francesco Piva, Soledad Perez-Amodio, Pierluigi Strippoli & Silvia Canaider (2013) An estimation of the number of cells in the human body, Annals of Human Biology, 40:6, 463-471
[2] Pizzorno J. Mitochondria-Fundamental to Life and Health. Integr Med (Encinitas). 2014 Apr;13(2):8-15. PMID: 26770084; PMCID: PMC4684129.
[3] Misgeld T, Schwarz TL. Mitostasis in Neurons: Maintaining Mitochondria in an Extended Cellular Architecture. Neuron. 2017 Nov 1;96(3):651-666.
[4] Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002. The Mitochondrion. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26894/
[5] Xianhua Wang (2017) Mitochondrial flashes regulate ATP homeostasis in the heart eLife 6:e23908.
[6] Ankel-Simons F, Cummins JM. Misconceptions about mitochondria and mammalian fertilization: implications for theories on human evolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996 Nov 26;93(24):13859-63.
[7] Ravera, S.; Colombo, E.; Pasquale, C.; Benedicenti, S.; Solimei, L.; Signore, A.; Amaroli, A. Mitochondrial Bioenergetic, Photobiomodulation and Trigeminal Branches Nerve Damage, What’s the Connection? A Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 4347.
[8] Amaroli, A.; Pasquale, C.; Zekiy, A.; Utyuzh, A.; Benedicenti, S.; Signore, A.; Ravera, S. Photobiomodulation and Oxidative Stress: 980 nm Diode Laser Light Regulates Mitochondrial Activity and Reactive Oxygen Species Production. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2021, 3, 6626286.
[9] Ravera, S.; Ferrando, S.; Agas, D.; De Angelis, N.; Raffetto, M.; Sabbieti, M.G.; Signore, A.; Benedicenti, S.; Amaroli, A.
1064 nm Nd:YAG laser light affects transmembrane mitochondria respiratory chain complexes. J. Biophotonics 2019, 12,
201900101.
[10] Amaroli, A.; Ravera, S.; Parker, S.; Panfoli, I.; Benedicenti, A.; Benedicenti, S. An 808-nm Diode Laser with a Flat-Top Handpiece Positively Photobiomodulates Mitochondria Activities. Photomed. Laser Surg. 2016, 34, 564–571.
[11] Passarella, S.; Karu, T. Absorption of monochromatic and narrow band radiation in the visible and near IR by both mitochondrial and non-mitochondrial photoacceptors results in photobiomodulation. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B 2014, 140, 344–358.
[12] Karu, T.I. Mitochondrial signaling in mammalian cells activated by red and near-IR radiation. Photochem. Photobiol. 2008, 84, 1091–1099.
[13] Mante˘ıfel’, V.M.; Andre˘ıchuk, T.N.; Karu, T.I. Reaktsiia mitokhondrial’nogo appparata limfotsitov na obluchenie He-Ne-lazerom ina mitogen fitohemaggliutinin [The effect of irradiation by a He-Ne laser and phytohemagglutinin on lymphocyte mitochondria]. Mol. Biol. 1991, 25, 273–280.
[14] Pizzorno J. Mitochondria-Fundamental to Life and Health. Integr Med (Encinitas). 2014 Apr;13(2):8-15
[15] Otto Warburg. Otto-Warburg-Medal. Available: http://otto-warburg- medal.org/index.php/otto-warburg-30.html [February 10, 2018].
[16] Yonetani T, Ray GS. Studies on Cytochrome Oxidase. 1965; 240(8): 3392- 3398.
[17] Li, Y., Park, JS., Deng, JH. et al. Cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV is essential for assembly and respiratory function of the enzyme complex. J Bioenerg Biomembr (2006) 38: 283.
[18] Herrmann, P.C. & Herrmann, E.C. Oxygen Metabolism and a potential role for cytochrome c oxidase in the Warburg effect. J Bioenerg Biomembr (2007) 39: 247.
[19] Karu T. Primary and secondary mechanisms of actionof visible to near-IR radiation on cells. J Photochem Photobiol B, Biol. 1999;49(1):1-17.
[20] L.F. De Freitas, M.R. Hamblin. Proposed mechanisms of photobiomodulation or low-level light therapy IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron., 22 (2016), p. 7000417
[21] Karu, T.I., 2010. Multiple roles of cytochrome c oxidase in mammalian cells under action of red and IR-A radiation. IUBMB Life 62 (8), 607610.
[22] Nunez-Alvarez, C., Del Olmo-Aguado, S., Merayo-Lloves, J., Osborne, N.N., 2017. Near infra-red light attenuates corneal endothelial cell dysfunction
in situ and in vitro. Exp. Eye Res. 161, 106115.
[23] Spitler, R., Ho, H., Norpetlian, F., Kong, X., Jiang, J., Yokomori, K., et al., 2015. Combination of low level light therapy and nitrosyl-cobinamide accelerates wound healing. J. Biomed. Opt. 20 (5), 051022.
[24] Wong-Riley, M.T., Liang, H.L., Eells, J.T., Chance, B., Henry, M.M., Buchmann, E., et al., 2005. Photobiomodulation directly benefits primary neurons functionally inactivated by toxins: role of cytochrome c oxidase. J. Biol. Chem. 280 (6), 47614771.
[25] Kilmartin JV. The Bohr effect of human hemoglobin. Trends in Bio. Sci. 1977;2(11):247-249.
[26] Tyuma I. The Bohr effect and the Haldane effect in human hemoglobin. Jpn J Physiol. 1984;34(2):205-16.
[27] Poyart CF, Bursaux E. [Current conception of the Bohr effect]. Poumon Coeur. 1975;31(4):173-7.
[28] Lane, N., 2006. Cell biology: power games. Nature 443 (7114), 901903.
[29] Moncada, S., Erusalimsky, J.D., 2002. Does nitric oxide modulate mitochondrial energy generation and apoptosis? Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 3 (3),
214220.
[30] Wang, X., Tian, F., Soni, S. et al. Interplay between up-regulation of cytochrome-c-oxidase and hemoglobin oxygenation induced by near-infrared laser. Sci Rep 6, 30540 (2016).
[31] Wilson, D.F., Chance, B., 1967. Azide inhibition of mitochondrial electron transport I. The aerobic steady state of succinate oxidation. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 131, 421430.
[32] Zhang Q, Dong T, Li P, Wu MX. Noninvasive low-level laser therapy for thrombocytopenia. Sci Transl Med. 2016
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5844808/
[33] Wikstrom, M., Krab, K., Saraste, M., 1981. Cytochrome Oxidase. A Synthesis. Academic Press, New York.
[34] Sommer AP, Haddad MK, Fecht H-J. Light effect on water viscosity: implication for ATP biosynthesis. Sci Rep 2015;5:12029.
References / further reading on EZ Water and Water as a Chromophore:
Cells, gels, and the engines of life — Gerald Pollack
The fourth phase of water — Gerald Pollack
Water and the cell — Gerald Pollack
https://www.bodyworkmovementtherapies.com/article/S1360-8592(13)00068-5/fulltext
A revolution in the physiology of the living cell — Glibert Ling
https://www.westonaprice.org/podcast/build-the-4th-phase-of-water-in-the-body/#gsc.tab=0
Cancer and the new biology of water — Thomas Cowan
Human heart, cosmic heart — Thomas Cowan
Midwest Doctor Series **Excellent**
Part 1: https://www.midwesterndoctor.com/p/what-is-the-forgotten-side-of-water
Part 2: https://www.midwesterndoctor.com/p/what-actually-happens-with-water
Part 3: https://www.midwesterndoctor.com/p/what-causes-water-to-move-inside
Part 4: https://www.midwesterndoctor.com/p/what-is-the-relationship-between
Part 5: https://www.midwesterndoctor.com/p/how-to-improve-zeta-potential-and
Another Good article to read: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4782038/#B25
Cells, gels, and the engines of life — Gerald Pollack
The fourth phase of water — Gerald Pollack
Water and the cell — Gerald Pollack
https://www.bodyworkmovementtherapies.com/article/S1360-8592(13)00068-5/fulltext
A revolution in the physiology of the living cell — Glibert Ling
https://www.westonaprice.org/podcast/build-the-4th-phase-of-water-in-the-body/#gsc.tab=0
Cancer and the new biology of water — Thomas Cowan
Human heart, cosmic heart — Thomas Cowan
Midwest Doctor Series **Excellent**
Part 1: https://www.midwesterndoctor.com/p/what-is-the-forgotten-side-of-water
Part 2: https://www.midwesterndoctor.com/p/what-actually-happens-with-water
Part 3: https://www.midwesterndoctor.com/p/what-causes-water-to-move-inside
Part 4: https://www.midwesterndoctor.com/p/what-is-the-relationship-between
Part 5: https://www.midwesterndoctor.com/p/how-to-improve-zeta-potential-and
Another Good article to read: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4782038/#B25
******END OF CHAPTER*****
NO MORE EDITING OR ILLUSTRATIONS PAST THIS POINT
NO MORE EDITING OR ILLUSTRATIONS PAST THIS POINT
How Much ATP Does the Body Produce Every Day?
A healthy person at rest produces their body weight in adenosine triphosphate each day! This is remarkable considering there are only approximately 250 grams (about half a pound) of ATP in our bodies at any given time. This equates to about 4.25 watts, the equivalent of the energy in a single AA battery. In every 24 hour period, a healthy person produces a remarkable 1200 watts [14]!
To meet these energy needs, the average cell uses 10 billion ATP per day, which translates to the typical adult needing about 3.0 × 10^25 ATP molecules. Okay, gargantuan number fans, this one’s for you: we’re talking 30,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 molecules of ATP daily! To put that in perspective, the weight of the earth is 1.13 x 10^25 pounds, which is numerically on the same order of magnitude. Think about how massive the earth is. Comparatively, for EVERY pound of the gigantic six sextillion ton earth, our bodies require a that many molecules of ATP per day! This is a staggeringly large number - and truly one of the miracles of life of earth!!
A healthy person at rest produces their body weight in adenosine triphosphate each day! This is remarkable considering there are only approximately 250 grams (about half a pound) of ATP in our bodies at any given time. This equates to about 4.25 watts, the equivalent of the energy in a single AA battery. In every 24 hour period, a healthy person produces a remarkable 1200 watts [14]!
To meet these energy needs, the average cell uses 10 billion ATP per day, which translates to the typical adult needing about 3.0 × 10^25 ATP molecules. Okay, gargantuan number fans, this one’s for you: we’re talking 30,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 molecules of ATP daily! To put that in perspective, the weight of the earth is 1.13 x 10^25 pounds, which is numerically on the same order of magnitude. Think about how massive the earth is. Comparatively, for EVERY pound of the gigantic six sextillion ton earth, our bodies require a that many molecules of ATP per day! This is a staggeringly large number - and truly one of the miracles of life of earth!!

As an undergrad studying physics at Georgia Tech, coauthor Meyers mentor was Dr. David Finkelstein, a world-renowned expert in quantum mechanics and general relativity. More than anyone else, he inspired Meyers enduring love of physics and sparked his passion for pondering the deeper mysteries of the universe. Among so many other pearls of wisdom he imparted, he would sometimes - when referring to the quintessence or capturing the gist of something - use the phrase “the core of the poodle.”
This saying comes from Goethe’s 19th century magnum opus “Faust.” When the protagonist went for a walk, a poodle joined him and later followed him into his room, where it transformed into Mephisto. He revealed that although the misshapen pentagram carved into Faust’s doorway allowed him to enter, he could not leave. It surprised Faust that Mephisto was bound by mystical laws. Faust realized that that his companion wasn’t a poodle at all - but a delegate from hell. He exclaimed, “So this was the poodle's core!”
Why share this anecdote from German literature? As a metaphor to make this important point: The "core of the poodle" in red and near infrared therapy is this: Red light therapy stimulates the mitochondria - the powerhouse of the cell - to boost cellular metabolism and produce more Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), the universal currency of biological energy! Red light therapy increases our core energy at its most fundamental level.
This saying comes from Goethe’s 19th century magnum opus “Faust.” When the protagonist went for a walk, a poodle joined him and later followed him into his room, where it transformed into Mephisto. He revealed that although the misshapen pentagram carved into Faust’s doorway allowed him to enter, he could not leave. It surprised Faust that Mephisto was bound by mystical laws. Faust realized that that his companion wasn’t a poodle at all - but a delegate from hell. He exclaimed, “So this was the poodle's core!”
Why share this anecdote from German literature? As a metaphor to make this important point: The "core of the poodle" in red and near infrared therapy is this: Red light therapy stimulates the mitochondria - the powerhouse of the cell - to boost cellular metabolism and produce more Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), the universal currency of biological energy! Red light therapy increases our core energy at its most fundamental level.
Water Itself Could Be a Source of Energy!
On the other hand, several other studies have indicated that another possible mechanism of PBM especially at FIR and MIR wavelengths is absorption of radiation by water molecules. Pollack et al. demonstrated that radiant energy can generate an exclusion zone (EZ) in a water interface that possesses the correct type of hydrophilic/hydrophobic balance [65, 125]. EZ water can store electrical charges, and can release up to 70% of the input energy.
65. Pollack GH. Cell electrical properties: reconsidering the origin of the electrical potential. Cell biology international. 2015;39(3):237–242
125. Musumeci F, Pollack GH. High electrical permittivity of ultrapure water at the water platinum interface. Chemical physics letters. 2014;613:19–23
Cellular membranes are characterized by the presence of a thin (nanometer) layer of water that builds up on hydrophobic surfaces [126]. Very low amounts of non-heating IR radiation can deliver relatively small amounts of vibrational energy to the nanostructured water layers and may be able to perturb its structure and that of neighboring molecules without causing any bulk heating effect (i.e. without causing any measurable rise in temperature) [127]. Intramitochondrial water viscosity gradients have been identified by the technique of nano-indentation [128]. ATP synthesis can be decreased and increased in response to modulation of reactive oxygen species levels caused by non-thermal levels of NIR. The possible control mechanism of this “mitochondrial nanomotor” is that the NIR could increase ATP turnover by reducing the viscosity of the interfacial water layers. Recently, Santana-Blank et al. proposed that external electromagnetic (light) energy could activate oxygen-dependent and oxygen-independent pathways based on water light interactions [129]. As a result of water light interactions and energy transfer mechanisms, IR generates interfacial EZ-water as a selective rechargeable electrolytic bio-battery [130]. Light energy in oxygen-dependent pathways generates high-energy molecules called nucleotide-phosphates including ATP and GTP. Water light interactions in the oxygen-independent pathway, lead to photoinduced non-linear oscillations in water that could provide energy for cellular reactions, including metabolism, signaling, and gene transcription.
126. Sommer AP, Caron A, Fecht HJ. Tuning nanoscopic water layers on hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfaces with laser light. Langmuir. 2008;24(3):635–636.
127. Sommer AP, et al. Pulsed laser light forces cancer cells to absorb anticancer drugs the role of water in nanomedicine. Artificial Cells, Blood Substitutes, and Biotechnology. 2011;39(3):169–173
128. Sommer AP, Haddad MK, Fecht HJ. Light effect on water viscosity: implication for ATP biosynthesis. Scientific reports. 2015;5
129. Santana-Blank L, et al. “Quantum Leap” in Photobiomodulation Therapy Ushers in a New Generation of Light-Based Treatments for Cancer and Other Complex Diseases: Perspective and Mini-Review. Photomedicine and laser surgery. 2016;34(3):93–101
130. Santana-Blank L, Rodríguez-Santana E, Santana-Rodríguez KE. Photobiomodulation of aqueous interfaces as selective rechargeable bio-batteries in complex diseases: personal view. Photomedicine and laser surgery. 2012;30(5):242–249.
On the other hand, several other studies have indicated that another possible mechanism of PBM especially at FIR and MIR wavelengths is absorption of radiation by water molecules. Pollack et al. demonstrated that radiant energy can generate an exclusion zone (EZ) in a water interface that possesses the correct type of hydrophilic/hydrophobic balance [65, 125]. EZ water can store electrical charges, and can release up to 70% of the input energy.
65. Pollack GH. Cell electrical properties: reconsidering the origin of the electrical potential. Cell biology international. 2015;39(3):237–242
125. Musumeci F, Pollack GH. High electrical permittivity of ultrapure water at the water platinum interface. Chemical physics letters. 2014;613:19–23
Cellular membranes are characterized by the presence of a thin (nanometer) layer of water that builds up on hydrophobic surfaces [126]. Very low amounts of non-heating IR radiation can deliver relatively small amounts of vibrational energy to the nanostructured water layers and may be able to perturb its structure and that of neighboring molecules without causing any bulk heating effect (i.e. without causing any measurable rise in temperature) [127]. Intramitochondrial water viscosity gradients have been identified by the technique of nano-indentation [128]. ATP synthesis can be decreased and increased in response to modulation of reactive oxygen species levels caused by non-thermal levels of NIR. The possible control mechanism of this “mitochondrial nanomotor” is that the NIR could increase ATP turnover by reducing the viscosity of the interfacial water layers. Recently, Santana-Blank et al. proposed that external electromagnetic (light) energy could activate oxygen-dependent and oxygen-independent pathways based on water light interactions [129]. As a result of water light interactions and energy transfer mechanisms, IR generates interfacial EZ-water as a selective rechargeable electrolytic bio-battery [130]. Light energy in oxygen-dependent pathways generates high-energy molecules called nucleotide-phosphates including ATP and GTP. Water light interactions in the oxygen-independent pathway, lead to photoinduced non-linear oscillations in water that could provide energy for cellular reactions, including metabolism, signaling, and gene transcription.
126. Sommer AP, Caron A, Fecht HJ. Tuning nanoscopic water layers on hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfaces with laser light. Langmuir. 2008;24(3):635–636.
127. Sommer AP, et al. Pulsed laser light forces cancer cells to absorb anticancer drugs the role of water in nanomedicine. Artificial Cells, Blood Substitutes, and Biotechnology. 2011;39(3):169–173
128. Sommer AP, Haddad MK, Fecht HJ. Light effect on water viscosity: implication for ATP biosynthesis. Scientific reports. 2015;5
129. Santana-Blank L, et al. “Quantum Leap” in Photobiomodulation Therapy Ushers in a New Generation of Light-Based Treatments for Cancer and Other Complex Diseases: Perspective and Mini-Review. Photomedicine and laser surgery. 2016;34(3):93–101
130. Santana-Blank L, Rodríguez-Santana E, Santana-Rodríguez KE. Photobiomodulation of aqueous interfaces as selective rechargeable bio-batteries in complex diseases: personal view. Photomedicine and laser surgery. 2012;30(5):242–249.

Brief Overview of how does Red Light Therapy Work inside the Cell
Here you see a cross section of the cell with an arrow pointed to the mitochondria. As we mentioned the mitochondria are organelles which are like little production factories or powerhouses of the cell where ATP is produced.
The absorption of light by cytochrome c oxidase boosts an electron to a more energized state so it can more easily pass electrons to oxygen.
In the image below the cell, we have a closer look at what goes on inside the mitochondria. Much of the red and near infrared light gets absorbed on the enzyme (which is a chromophore) called cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). With absorption by CCO, the light's energy gets transferred to the mitochondria which excites or speeds up reactions between all the enzymes here on the electron transport chain. This increases mitochondria membrane potential which basically means it increases the cells ability to do more work that ultimately results in increased ATP synthesis. And this of course means we have more gas in the tank and that our cells have more energy to carry out their many functions with greater efficiency.
Red & Near Infrared Light Absorbed by cytochrome c oxidase => Excites electron transfer reactions => Increases ATP
Now if that brief overview is enough, feel free to skip the next section. I felt compelled to include it because even though it is a bit technical, I feel taking a deeper look at the electron transport chain and ATP production will help you to really appreciate just how well red light therapy works to energize your body, tissues and cells.
At the end of this electron transport chain, we meet the enzyme Cytochrome C Oxidase (CCO)**. CCO is like the anchorman in a tug of war match. It does most of the "pulling" in the ETC by anchoring the electron-hungry oxygen. Anchored by CCO, oxygen is the final electron acceptor and most important electron acceptor. The reason we need oxygen to breathe is that we need an acceptor of those electrons. Around 50% of the voltage drop through the electron transport chain comes from oxygen AND about 90% of all oxygen absorbed by the cells is done by CCO!). [1] Think about that! Remember from the last chapter that two of the key molecules that make cytochrome c oxidase are the porphyrin heme which like in hemoglobin is a "magnet" for oxygen.
So here is where red light therapy produces its profound healing benefits: First, red and near infrared light therapy helps oxygen to dock or bind more effectively to CCO. Second, with the help of red light therapy, CCO more effectively passes electrons to oxygen, because the porphyrin heme in CCO BOTH absorbs light like a solar cell AND anchors oxygen so the electrons can be passed. And it is these excited electrons allow that ATP to be made more easily and efficiently!
Every step in this process, energy released from electrons of the reduced coenzymes NADH+ and FADH2 is coupled with a “device” that pumps protons (H+) into the intermembrane space to facilitate the increase of protons in the inner membrane space. These H+ ions are now trapped between two mitochondrial membranes, building a concentration and electrical gradients (an electrochemical gradient) between the inter-membrane space and the matrix, much the same way a battery stores energy.
Here you see a cross section of the cell with an arrow pointed to the mitochondria. As we mentioned the mitochondria are organelles which are like little production factories or powerhouses of the cell where ATP is produced.
The absorption of light by cytochrome c oxidase boosts an electron to a more energized state so it can more easily pass electrons to oxygen.
In the image below the cell, we have a closer look at what goes on inside the mitochondria. Much of the red and near infrared light gets absorbed on the enzyme (which is a chromophore) called cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). With absorption by CCO, the light's energy gets transferred to the mitochondria which excites or speeds up reactions between all the enzymes here on the electron transport chain. This increases mitochondria membrane potential which basically means it increases the cells ability to do more work that ultimately results in increased ATP synthesis. And this of course means we have more gas in the tank and that our cells have more energy to carry out their many functions with greater efficiency.
Red & Near Infrared Light Absorbed by cytochrome c oxidase => Excites electron transfer reactions => Increases ATP
Now if that brief overview is enough, feel free to skip the next section. I felt compelled to include it because even though it is a bit technical, I feel taking a deeper look at the electron transport chain and ATP production will help you to really appreciate just how well red light therapy works to energize your body, tissues and cells.
At the end of this electron transport chain, we meet the enzyme Cytochrome C Oxidase (CCO)**. CCO is like the anchorman in a tug of war match. It does most of the "pulling" in the ETC by anchoring the electron-hungry oxygen. Anchored by CCO, oxygen is the final electron acceptor and most important electron acceptor. The reason we need oxygen to breathe is that we need an acceptor of those electrons. Around 50% of the voltage drop through the electron transport chain comes from oxygen AND about 90% of all oxygen absorbed by the cells is done by CCO!). [1] Think about that! Remember from the last chapter that two of the key molecules that make cytochrome c oxidase are the porphyrin heme which like in hemoglobin is a "magnet" for oxygen.
So here is where red light therapy produces its profound healing benefits: First, red and near infrared light therapy helps oxygen to dock or bind more effectively to CCO. Second, with the help of red light therapy, CCO more effectively passes electrons to oxygen, because the porphyrin heme in CCO BOTH absorbs light like a solar cell AND anchors oxygen so the electrons can be passed. And it is these excited electrons allow that ATP to be made more easily and efficiently!
Every step in this process, energy released from electrons of the reduced coenzymes NADH+ and FADH2 is coupled with a “device” that pumps protons (H+) into the intermembrane space to facilitate the increase of protons in the inner membrane space. These H+ ions are now trapped between two mitochondrial membranes, building a concentration and electrical gradients (an electrochemical gradient) between the inter-membrane space and the matrix, much the same way a battery stores energy.
Let's now take a granular look at the mitochondria and aerobic respiration starting with the structure which gives us the big picture and the structure itself is key to aerobic respiration as opposed to glycolysis which occurs in the cell cytoplasm. Aerobic respiration (with oxygen) yields up to 38 ATP with water and carbon dioxide as byproducts. Glycolysis or anaerobic (without oxygen) respiration only yields 2-4 ATP with lactic acids and alcohols as byproducts. From one perspective health is when your cells and mitochondria are functioning via aerobic respiration and sickness and disease is when - through mitochondrial dysfunction - the cells operate too much through anaerobic respiration . Red light therapy has the effect of shifting the body into aerobic respiration which means increased ATP production (think 38 ATP vs 2-4)!! So let's look at this life nurturing aerobic respiration that happens in your body's quintillions of mitochondria.

4)Action at a distance: Mitochondria in blood and also platelets in the blood are rich in mitochondria.
It was recently discovered in 2020 that blood contains circulating cell free respiratory competent mitochondria. People have studied blood for hundreds of years so it just shows you there are many mysteries of the human body that science is continuously discovering.
This can explain why PBM can have significant systemic effects. If you shine light on one part of the body it can have distant effects on other parts of the body that did not receive any light.
pg 105 brain PBM book
case for full body light bed
**Circulating Mitochondria (and signaling)**
[1] Song X, Hu W, Yu H, Wang H, Zhao Y, Korngold R, Zhao Y. Existence of Circulating Mitochondria in Human and Animal Peripheral Blood. Int J Mol Sci. 2020 Mar 19;21(6):2122.
[2] Al Amir Dache Z, Otandault A, Tanos R, Pastor B, Meddeb R, Sanchez C, Arena G, Lasorsa L, Bennett A, Grange T, El Messaoudi S, Mazard T, Prevostel C, Thierry AR. Blood contains circulating cell-free respiratory competent mitochondria. FASEB J. 2020 Mar;34(3):3616-3630.
It was recently discovered in 2020 that blood contains circulating cell free respiratory competent mitochondria. People have studied blood for hundreds of years so it just shows you there are many mysteries of the human body that science is continuously discovering.
This can explain why PBM can have significant systemic effects. If you shine light on one part of the body it can have distant effects on other parts of the body that did not receive any light.
pg 105 brain PBM book
case for full body light bed
**Circulating Mitochondria (and signaling)**
[1] Song X, Hu W, Yu H, Wang H, Zhao Y, Korngold R, Zhao Y. Existence of Circulating Mitochondria in Human and Animal Peripheral Blood. Int J Mol Sci. 2020 Mar 19;21(6):2122.
[2] Al Amir Dache Z, Otandault A, Tanos R, Pastor B, Meddeb R, Sanchez C, Arena G, Lasorsa L, Bennett A, Grange T, El Messaoudi S, Mazard T, Prevostel C, Thierry AR. Blood contains circulating cell-free respiratory competent mitochondria. FASEB J. 2020 Mar;34(3):3616-3630.

Chromophores are Antennas that capture and transduce energy.
As we have explained, porphyrin based chromophores are like little molecular antennas or photocells that capture or receive the light of the sun. This light captured by the chromophores is then transduced into energy of various forms, such as an electrical impulse in the electron transport chain that stimulates ATP production in the mitochondria.
Transduction is a fancy word that simply means transforming one form of energy to another. In our modern world, that generally means converting various forms of fossil fuels, nuclear, solar, wind, hydroelectric energy, etc. into electricity. In our bodies, that electricity is produced in the mitochondria, which we can proudly call the power plants in our cells. In the next few chapters, we will discuss the mechanism for transduction and the many benefits that follow from a red light therapy session. The gist, however, is this: Light from the sun or an RLT device is absorbed, captured or received by either CCO (or H2O as we'll see). This light energy is transduced into bioelectricity in the electron transport chain, which is subsequently transduced to chemical energy in the ATP high energy phosphate bonds. This ATP energy is used to power, and shall we emphatically say, light up our entire bodies, much like electricity from our local power companies - or solar panels - lights up our homes!
As we have explained, porphyrin based chromophores are like little molecular antennas or photocells that capture or receive the light of the sun. This light captured by the chromophores is then transduced into energy of various forms, such as an electrical impulse in the electron transport chain that stimulates ATP production in the mitochondria.
Transduction is a fancy word that simply means transforming one form of energy to another. In our modern world, that generally means converting various forms of fossil fuels, nuclear, solar, wind, hydroelectric energy, etc. into electricity. In our bodies, that electricity is produced in the mitochondria, which we can proudly call the power plants in our cells. In the next few chapters, we will discuss the mechanism for transduction and the many benefits that follow from a red light therapy session. The gist, however, is this: Light from the sun or an RLT device is absorbed, captured or received by either CCO (or H2O as we'll see). This light energy is transduced into bioelectricity in the electron transport chain, which is subsequently transduced to chemical energy in the ATP high energy phosphate bonds. This ATP energy is used to power, and shall we emphatically say, light up our entire bodies, much like electricity from our local power companies - or solar panels - lights up our homes!

Dr. Warburg discovered that simply by inhibiting cytochrome c oxidase, a healthy cell could be turned into an unhealthy or even a cancer cell – a finding which has been confirmed by many recent experiments. In 2015, scientists from the University of Pennsylvania wrote, "Defects in cytochrome c oxidase expression induce a metabolic shift to glycolysis and carcinogenesis." [1]
A number of chemical toxins have been shown to inhibit cytochrome c oxidase activity, including chemotherapy [2], cyanide [3-5], carbon monoxide [6-7], aluminum phosphide [8], sepsis (extreme infection) [9] and X-ray radiation [10].
[1] Dong DW, Srinivasan S, Guha M, Avadhani NG. Defects in cytochrome c oxidase expression induce a metabolic shift to glycolysis and carcinogenesis. Genom Data. 2015;6:99-107.
[2] Brian B. Hasinoff, John P. Davey & Peter J. O'brien (2009) The Adriamycin (doxorubicin)-induced inactivation of cytochrome c oxidase depends on the presence of iron or copper, Xenobiotica, 19:2, 231-241.
[3] Stannard JN, Horecker BL. The in vitro inhibition of cytochrome oxidase by azide and cyanide. J biol chem. 1947; 172: 599-608.
[4]Wilson MT, Antonini G, Malatesta F, Sarti P, Brunori M. Probing the oxygen binding site of cytochrome c oxidase by cyanide. J Biol Chem. 1994;269(39):24114-9.
[5] JensenP, WilsonMT, AasaR, MalmströmBG .Cyanide inhibition of cytochrome c oxidase. A rapid-freeze e.p.r. investigation. Biochem J. 1984;224(3):829-37.
[6]Miró O, Casademont J, Barrientos A, Urbano-márquez A, Cardellach F. Mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase inhibition during acute carbon monoxide poisoning. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1998;82(4):199-202. [7]CarbonMonoxideSpecificallyInhibitsCytochromeCOxidaseofHuman Mitochondrial Respiratory Chain. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology. Toxicology. 2003; 93(3):142.
[8] AmoresE,Forde-bakerJ,GinsburgBY,NelsonLS.Cytochrome-Coxidase inhibition in 26 aluminum phosphide poisoned patients. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2007;45(5):461.
[9] LevyRJ, VijayasarathyC, RajNR, AvadhaniNG, DeutschmanCS. Competitive and noncompetitive inhibition of myocardial cytochrome C oxidase in sepsis. Shock. 2004;21(2):110-4.
[10] ZhongJ, RajaramN, BrizelDM,et al. Radiation induces aerobic glycolysis through reactive oxygen species. Radiother Oncol. 2013;106(3):390-6.
Upon exposure to any of the environmental contaminants listed above, cells produce the free radical form of nitric oxide, which binds directly to cytochrome c oxidase, thereby deactivating it. [1-3] For as long as nitric oxide is bound to this enzyme, the cell will have a defective metabolism - which becomes the breeding ground for sickness and disease, including cancer.
[1] Brown GC,Cooper CE.Nanomolar concentrations of nitric oxide reversibly inhibit synaptosomal respiration by competing with oxygen at cytochrome oxidase. FEBS letters. 1994; 356(2-3): 295-298.
[2] Bolanos JP,Peuchen S,Heales SJR, Land JM, ClarkJB. NitricOxide‐ Mediated Inhibition of the Mitochondrial Respiratory Chain in Cultured Astrocytes. Journal of Neurochemistry. 1994; 63(3):910.
[3] CleeterMW,CooperJM,Darley-usmarVM,MoncadaS,SchapiraAH. Reversible inhibition of cytochrome c oxidase, the terminal enzyme of the mitochondrial respiratory chain, by nitric oxide. Implications for neurodegenerative diseases. FEBS Lett. 1994;345(1):50-4.
Red Light Therapy to the Rescue!
Not only does red light therapy directly energize cytochrome c oxidase and supercharge its activity to create more ATP, it also helps to "clean" CCO from environmental toxins that cause NO to bind. Let's examine how this amazing mechanism works.
A number of chemical toxins have been shown to inhibit cytochrome c oxidase activity, including chemotherapy [2], cyanide [3-5], carbon monoxide [6-7], aluminum phosphide [8], sepsis (extreme infection) [9] and X-ray radiation [10].
[1] Dong DW, Srinivasan S, Guha M, Avadhani NG. Defects in cytochrome c oxidase expression induce a metabolic shift to glycolysis and carcinogenesis. Genom Data. 2015;6:99-107.
[2] Brian B. Hasinoff, John P. Davey & Peter J. O'brien (2009) The Adriamycin (doxorubicin)-induced inactivation of cytochrome c oxidase depends on the presence of iron or copper, Xenobiotica, 19:2, 231-241.
[3] Stannard JN, Horecker BL. The in vitro inhibition of cytochrome oxidase by azide and cyanide. J biol chem. 1947; 172: 599-608.
[4]Wilson MT, Antonini G, Malatesta F, Sarti P, Brunori M. Probing the oxygen binding site of cytochrome c oxidase by cyanide. J Biol Chem. 1994;269(39):24114-9.
[5] JensenP, WilsonMT, AasaR, MalmströmBG .Cyanide inhibition of cytochrome c oxidase. A rapid-freeze e.p.r. investigation. Biochem J. 1984;224(3):829-37.
[6]Miró O, Casademont J, Barrientos A, Urbano-márquez A, Cardellach F. Mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase inhibition during acute carbon monoxide poisoning. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1998;82(4):199-202. [7]CarbonMonoxideSpecificallyInhibitsCytochromeCOxidaseofHuman Mitochondrial Respiratory Chain. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology. Toxicology. 2003; 93(3):142.
[8] AmoresE,Forde-bakerJ,GinsburgBY,NelsonLS.Cytochrome-Coxidase inhibition in 26 aluminum phosphide poisoned patients. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2007;45(5):461.
[9] LevyRJ, VijayasarathyC, RajNR, AvadhaniNG, DeutschmanCS. Competitive and noncompetitive inhibition of myocardial cytochrome C oxidase in sepsis. Shock. 2004;21(2):110-4.
[10] ZhongJ, RajaramN, BrizelDM,et al. Radiation induces aerobic glycolysis through reactive oxygen species. Radiother Oncol. 2013;106(3):390-6.
Upon exposure to any of the environmental contaminants listed above, cells produce the free radical form of nitric oxide, which binds directly to cytochrome c oxidase, thereby deactivating it. [1-3] For as long as nitric oxide is bound to this enzyme, the cell will have a defective metabolism - which becomes the breeding ground for sickness and disease, including cancer.
[1] Brown GC,Cooper CE.Nanomolar concentrations of nitric oxide reversibly inhibit synaptosomal respiration by competing with oxygen at cytochrome oxidase. FEBS letters. 1994; 356(2-3): 295-298.
[2] Bolanos JP,Peuchen S,Heales SJR, Land JM, ClarkJB. NitricOxide‐ Mediated Inhibition of the Mitochondrial Respiratory Chain in Cultured Astrocytes. Journal of Neurochemistry. 1994; 63(3):910.
[3] CleeterMW,CooperJM,Darley-usmarVM,MoncadaS,SchapiraAH. Reversible inhibition of cytochrome c oxidase, the terminal enzyme of the mitochondrial respiratory chain, by nitric oxide. Implications for neurodegenerative diseases. FEBS Lett. 1994;345(1):50-4.
Red Light Therapy to the Rescue!
Not only does red light therapy directly energize cytochrome c oxidase and supercharge its activity to create more ATP, it also helps to "clean" CCO from environmental toxins that cause NO to bind. Let's examine how this amazing mechanism works.

Evidence 980 Modulates Calcium Gated Ion Channels via Water as Chromophore
9. Wang Y, Huang YY, Wang Y, Lyu P, Hamblin MR. Photobiomodulation of human adipose-derived stem cells using 810 nm and 980 nm lasers operates via different mechanisms of action. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2017;1861:441–449.
Recently Wang et al showed [108] that two different NIR wavelengths affected adipose-derived stem cells by distinctly different mechanisms of action. 810-nm laser was proposed to activate CCO leading to ATP production and a brief burst of ROS, but had no effect on intracellular calcium. By contrast 980 nm laser also increased ATP and ROS, but at much lower fluences (one tenth to one hundredth), and increased cytosolic calcium while at the same time decreasing mitochondrial calcium. The actions of 980 nm NIR but not the actions of 810 nm NIR could be abrogated by inhibitors of calcium ion channels such as TRPV. Heating up the cells or cooling down the cells abrogated the effects of 980 nm but not 810 nm. This study suggested that 980 nm could work by affecting nanostructured water layers in TRPV ion channels while 810 could directly activate CCO enzyme activity. Figure 2 graphically summariuzes the two most important proposed biological mechanisms of action of IR.
108. Wang Y, et al. Photobiomodulation of human adipose-derived stem cells using 810nm and 980nm lasers operates via different mechanisms of action. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2016
**END CHAPTER**
9. Wang Y, Huang YY, Wang Y, Lyu P, Hamblin MR. Photobiomodulation of human adipose-derived stem cells using 810 nm and 980 nm lasers operates via different mechanisms of action. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2017;1861:441–449.
Recently Wang et al showed [108] that two different NIR wavelengths affected adipose-derived stem cells by distinctly different mechanisms of action. 810-nm laser was proposed to activate CCO leading to ATP production and a brief burst of ROS, but had no effect on intracellular calcium. By contrast 980 nm laser also increased ATP and ROS, but at much lower fluences (one tenth to one hundredth), and increased cytosolic calcium while at the same time decreasing mitochondrial calcium. The actions of 980 nm NIR but not the actions of 810 nm NIR could be abrogated by inhibitors of calcium ion channels such as TRPV. Heating up the cells or cooling down the cells abrogated the effects of 980 nm but not 810 nm. This study suggested that 980 nm could work by affecting nanostructured water layers in TRPV ion channels while 810 could directly activate CCO enzyme activity. Figure 2 graphically summariuzes the two most important proposed biological mechanisms of action of IR.
108. Wang Y, et al. Photobiomodulation of human adipose-derived stem cells using 810nm and 980nm lasers operates via different mechanisms of action. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2016
**END CHAPTER**

Let’s try to make heads or tails of this graphic. Energy is released from an ATP molecule when the bond between the second and third phosphate groups is broken. We call this process hydrolysis, and it occurs when the ATP molecule is broken down into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a phosphate group. The precise energy ATP carries in its high energy phosphate bonds – 7.7 calories - is the precise amount most biological reactions require. This removes one of the phosphate-oxygen groups, leaving adenosine diphosphate (ADP).


We may notice something interesting here. As the electrons transport downhill, protons are pumped in the opposite direction in much the same way the water company uses electrical power from the power company to pump water "uphill" into a large water tower. Similarly, the electricity from the ETC powers three enzymatic proton pumps to pump positive H+ ions uphill into the intermembrane space. This is the secret of ATP and living metabolism — which has no equal in the best physicochemical systems that scientists can now design. The energy yielding reactions - oxidation of food and harnessing of light - are always coupled to energy requiring reactions (proton pumps to create ATP). The secret of life lies in both charge separation and this coupling of "energy yielding" to "energy requiring" processes. Next time we’re asked, “What is life all about?” we’ll have this hyper-scientific answer at the ready!
The coupling can be so perfect that the efficiency of energy transfer is close to 100%. Central to these coupling of energy yielding and energy requiring processes is the cyclic interconversion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). The terminal phosphate of ATP is added to ADP by energy yielding respiration. Then, via hydrolysis that releases 7.7 calories of energy, this ATP powers up all of life on earth - which includes you and me and the entire human race. This is something we all have in common - a shared source of energy and life! We need to remember this next time we want to settle an ideological or sociopolitical argument.
The coupling can be so perfect that the efficiency of energy transfer is close to 100%. Central to these coupling of energy yielding and energy requiring processes is the cyclic interconversion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). The terminal phosphate of ATP is added to ADP by energy yielding respiration. Then, via hydrolysis that releases 7.7 calories of energy, this ATP powers up all of life on earth - which includes you and me and the entire human race. This is something we all have in common - a shared source of energy and life! We need to remember this next time we want to settle an ideological or sociopolitical argument.
ENHANCING METABOLISM WITH RED LIGHT
The interactions between red and near-infrared wavelengths of light and cellular metabolism are fascinating and unique. Red and near-infrared light are two factors which have been proven to actually unbind (aka photodissociate) nitric oxide from the cytochrome c oxidase enzyme,26-27 restoring its activity. But the truth is even more incredible.
The result is enhanced cellular metabolism47-50 and the cascade of beneficial physiological effects that emerge from increased metabolic activity, including:
Increased cellular oxygenation52-54
Increased blood flow in the body55-56
Increased CO2 production51
Reduced stress hormones57
Reduced lactic acid49-51
Reduced inflammation58
Reduced free radicals59-64
It’s this cascade of benefiical physiological changes caused by red and near- infrared light that can account for most, if not all, of the broad ranging beneficial effects of near-infrared and red light therapies.
The interactions between red and near-infrared wavelengths of light and cellular metabolism are fascinating and unique. Red and near-infrared light are two factors which have been proven to actually unbind (aka photodissociate) nitric oxide from the cytochrome c oxidase enzyme,26-27 restoring its activity. But the truth is even more incredible.
The result is enhanced cellular metabolism47-50 and the cascade of beneficial physiological effects that emerge from increased metabolic activity, including:
Increased cellular oxygenation52-54
Increased blood flow in the body55-56
Increased CO2 production51
Reduced stress hormones57
Reduced lactic acid49-51
Reduced inflammation58
Reduced free radicals59-64
It’s this cascade of benefiical physiological changes caused by red and near- infrared light that can account for most, if not all, of the broad ranging beneficial effects of near-infrared and red light therapies.

I came across Szent Györgyi's idea that life is interposed between two energy levels of the electron. The more I learn about cellular metabolism and how ATP is synthesize the more
Living systems may indeed be electrodynamical through and through. As Szent-Györgi27 writes,
“...life is driven by nothing else but electrons, by the energy given off by these electrons while cascading down from the high level to which they have been boosted up by photons. An electron going around is a little current. What drives life is thus a little electric current.”
But there is even more to this. We also know that mobile charges, carried by both electrons and protons, play a major role in energy transduction and transformation in the living system. Szent-Györgi among others, has noted that the sites of primary energy transduction, the cell membranes, are closely analogous to the pn junction (like what is used in solar panels), a semiconductor device which facilitates the separation of positive and negative charges, and is capable of generating an electric current when excited by energy in the form of heat or light.28 It is the basis of the solar cell, which will yet prove to be the cleanest and most efficient source of renewable energy, if that is the lesson we can obviously learn from nature.
In common with these semiconductor devices, various biological membranes and artificially constituted phospholipid membranes also exhibit thermoelectric, photoelectric and piezoelectric effects due respectively to heat, light and mechanical pressure.29 In addition, many semiconductor devices are luminescent, producing light as the result of heating, electrical pumping (the basis of electroluminescent devices which are used in producing laser light) and also stimulation, by light.30
Living systems may indeed be electrodynamical through and through. As Szent-Györgi27 writes,
“...life is driven by nothing else but electrons, by the energy given off by these electrons while cascading down from the high level to which they have been boosted up by photons. An electron going around is a little current. What drives life is thus a little electric current.”
But there is even more to this. We also know that mobile charges, carried by both electrons and protons, play a major role in energy transduction and transformation in the living system. Szent-Györgi among others, has noted that the sites of primary energy transduction, the cell membranes, are closely analogous to the pn junction (like what is used in solar panels), a semiconductor device which facilitates the separation of positive and negative charges, and is capable of generating an electric current when excited by energy in the form of heat or light.28 It is the basis of the solar cell, which will yet prove to be the cleanest and most efficient source of renewable energy, if that is the lesson we can obviously learn from nature.
In common with these semiconductor devices, various biological membranes and artificially constituted phospholipid membranes also exhibit thermoelectric, photoelectric and piezoelectric effects due respectively to heat, light and mechanical pressure.29 In addition, many semiconductor devices are luminescent, producing light as the result of heating, electrical pumping (the basis of electroluminescent devices which are used in producing laser light) and also stimulation, by light.30

New Mechanism Proposed
Some wavelengths in the Red and NIR can directly affect ground state Oxygen to Singlet Oxygen.
Some wavelengths in the Red and NIR can directly affect ground state Oxygen to Singlet Oxygen.
Other Benefits
It also reduces the production of ROS, RNS, and nitrotyrosine, and significantly diminishes apoptotic cell death caused by these toxins. PBM pretreatment further enhances the therapeutic effect of LED, especially when administered in conjunction with PBM during toxin exposure. However, depending on the dosage of toxins and the frequency of treatment, PBM may or may not rescue neurons completely to control levels.
**Photobiomodulation in the Brain Low-Level Laser (Light) Therapy in Neurology and Neuroscience, Hamblin and Huang 2019 (page 32)
It also reduces the production of ROS, RNS, and nitrotyrosine, and significantly diminishes apoptotic cell death caused by these toxins. PBM pretreatment further enhances the therapeutic effect of LED, especially when administered in conjunction with PBM during toxin exposure. However, depending on the dosage of toxins and the frequency of treatment, PBM may or may not rescue neurons completely to control levels.
**Photobiomodulation in the Brain Low-Level Laser (Light) Therapy in Neurology and Neuroscience, Hamblin and Huang 2019 (page 32)
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